Scottish Wars of Independence

Alexander III and the Succession Problem 1286-92

• Alexander III died in 1286 without a direct male heir, which created a power vacuum and the immediate threat of a succession crisis.

• The Guardians were appointed in 1286, which provided political stability and prevented the kingdom from descending into civil war while the heir was a child.

• The Treaty of Birgham (1290) was designed to protect Scottish independence, ensuring the country would remain "separate and distinct" even if Margaret married an English prince.

• Margaret, Maid of Norway, died in 1290, which made the Treaty of Birgham void and left Scotland with no clear, undisputed heir.

• The Guardians appealed to Edward I to act as an arbitrator because they feared the Bruce and Balliol families would start a civil war over the throne.

• Edward demanded to be accepted as Overlord at Norham, which allowed him to gain legal control over Scotland before he would even consider the claimants.

• Edward took control of Scottish royal castles, which physically stripped the Guardians of their power and gave Edward military leverage.

• The Great Cause (1291-1292) involved 13 claimants, which complicated the process and allowed Edward to prolong his stay and influence in Scotland.

• Edward chose John Balliol based on primogeniture, which was legally sound but deeply angered Robert Bruce, ensuring future internal division.

• Balliol was inaugurated at Scone (1292), which followed Scottish tradition but was overshadowed by the fact he had to swear homage to Edward immediately after.

The Guardians

• Six Guardians were appointed in 1286 to rule in the name of the absent heir, which prevented any single noble family from seizing power.

• They represented the "Community of the Realm," which kept the kingdom unified by involving the church, the earls, and the barons in government.

• They created a new royal seal, which allowed the government to continue functioning legally without a physically present king.

• They swore an oath of fealty to the "right heir," which focused loyalty on the crown itself rather than a specific person.

• The Guardians excluded Bruce and Balliol, which was a deliberate move to prevent their intense rivalry from paralyzing the government.

• They successfully negotiated the Treaty of Birgham, which showed the world that Scotland was a mature nation capable of defending its own independence.

• They maintained the "King's Peace" for four years, which proved that Scotland did not need an English king to stay organized.

• They sent an embassy to King Eric of Norway, which was a proactive attempt to bring the Maid to Scotland and finalize the succession.

Death of Margaret, Maid of Norway

• Margaret was the only living descendant of Alexander III, so her death in 1290 meant the direct royal line of the House of Dunkeld was extinct.

• She died in Orkney on her way to Scotland, which meant she was never inaugurated, leaving her status as Queen technically incomplete.

• Her death made the Treaty of Birgham "null and void," which destroyed the legal safeguards the Scots had built to protect their independence.

• It triggered a scramble for the throne by 13 claimants, which turned a manageable situation into a chaotic legal crisis.

• It forced the Guardians to ask Edward I for help, which inadvertently gave the English King a "foot in the door" to intervene in Scottish affairs.

• It led to the "Seven Earls" of Scotland appealing to Edward, showing that the Scottish leadership was beginning to fracture under pressure.

• It left the Bruce family believing their time had come, leading them to raise an army and threaten the stability of the kingdom.

• It allowed Edward I to bring his army to the border, using the "emergency" of her death as an excuse for military mobilization.

Scottish Appeal to Edward I and Norham

• The Scots appealed to Edward to prevent civil war, which gave him the role of a "peacekeeper" and made it hard for the Scots to refuse his later demands.

• Edward searched English chronicles for evidence of overlordship, which he used to justify his claim that he was the "Lord Superior" of Scotland.

• He met the Scots at Norham in 1291, which was on English soil, giving him the "home ground" advantage in the negotiations.

• He demanded all claimants accept him as Overlord, which turned a simple arbitration into a total surrender of Scottish sovereignty.

• The Scots famously replied that "only a king" could answer him, which was a brave attempt to protect the crown's rights while it was empty.

• Edward threatened to use force to get his way, which showed the Scots that he was acting as a conqueror, not a neutral judge.

• All 13 claimants eventually accepted Edward's terms, because they were more interested in their own power than the country's freedom.

• This became the "Award of Norham," which legally bound the future King of Scots to be a vassal of the King of England.

The Great Cause and Edward's Decision

• The "Great Cause" was the legal trial to find the heir, which lasted over a year and allowed Edward to solidify his control over Scottish castles.

• Edward appointed 104 "auditors" to hear the case, which made the process look fair and thorough while Edward remained the final judge.

• The main contest was between Balliol and Bruce, which split the Scottish nobility into two competing, bitter factions.

• Balliol argued for "Primogeniture" (senior line), which was the standard legal practice for inheriting property in the 13th century.

• Bruce argued for "Proximity" (nearness of blood), which claimed he was closer to the original royal family, causing a massive legal debate.

• Edward chose Balliol in November 1292, which was legally correct but left the powerful Bruce family feeling cheated and rebellious.

• Edward rejected the idea of dividing Scotland, not to help the Scots, but because he wanted one single vassal king who could pay him taxes.

• Balliol had to pay homage to Edward at Newcastle, which confirmed that his title as King was dependent on English approval.

John Balliol and Edward I 1292-96

• Balliol swore homage to Edward three times, which publicly signaled that Scotland was now a vassal state of England.

• Edward heard legal appeals against Balliol's courts, which proved that the Scottish legal system was no longer the highest authority in the land.

• In the McDuff case (1293), Edward summoned Balliol to London, which was a deliberate attempt to humiliate the King in front of his own subjects.

• Edward forced Balliol to cancel the Treaty of Birgham, which stripped away the last legal protection Scotland had against English takeover.

• Edward summoned the Scots to fight in France (1294), which was the final insult that forced the Scottish nobles to realize Balliol could not protect them.

• The Council of Twelve was appointed in 1295, effectively stripping Balliol of his power because the nobles no longer trusted his leadership.

• The Auld Alliance (1296) was signed with France, which was a formal act of rebellion that Edward viewed as a declaration of war.

• The Sacking of Berwick (1296) involved the massacre of thousands, which was intended to terrify the rest of Scotland into immediate submission.

• The Battle of Dunbar (1296) was a total Scottish defeat that resulted in the capture of the Scottish nobility, ending organized resistance.

• The "Ragman's Roll" forced 1,500 nobles to sign to Edward, which gave him a written legal record of every "traitor" in the country.

Balliol's Rule

• Balliol was inaugurated at Scone in 1292, which technically made him the rightful King but left him with the impossible task of managing Edward I.

• He struggled with the "puppet king" image, which made it difficult for him to gain the respect of the Scottish people and his own nobles.

• Balliol inherited massive debts to the English crown, which left his government financially weak and vulnerable to Edward's pressure.

• He relied heavily on the Comyn family for advice, which alienated the Bruce family and ensured the Scottish government remained divided.

• Balliol actually held successful parliaments, showing that he was trying to rule as a proper, modern king despite the pressure.

• He appointed new sheriffs in the West, which showed he was attempting to expand royal authority into the Highlands and Islands.

• Balliol was forced to pay for Edward's wars, which drained the Scottish treasury and led to resentment among the Scottish taxpayers.

• He was eventually sidelined by the Council of Twelve, which showed that his rule had failed to protect Scotland from English interference.

Edward's Overlordship

• Edward claimed he was the "Lord Superior" of Scotland, which he used as a legal excuse to interfere in every part of Scottish government.

• He forced Balliol to appoint an English Chancellor, which ensured that an English agent was overseeing all of Scotland's official business.

• Edward set up an English-style Treasury in Berwick, which allowed him to monitor and control Scotland's trade and taxes.

• He insisted on hearing appeals from Scottish courts, which made Balliol look weak and incapable of delivering justice to his own people.

• In the Berwick burgesses case, Edward overturned a Scottish ruling, which proved to merchants that their laws didn't matter if Edward disagreed.

• Edward used the McDuff case to threaten Balliol with contempt, showing he treated the King of Scots like a common criminal.

• He demanded the Scots provide military service in Gascony, which was a service only required of English subjects, not an independent ally.

• Edward demanded control of three key Scottish castles (Berwick, Jedburgh, Roxburgh), which would have given him total military control of the border.

The Scottish Response

• The Scottish nobles refused to serve in Edward's French wars, which was the first major act of collective defiance against his overlordship.

• The Parliament at Stirling (1295) took power from Balliol, showing the "Community of the Realm" was taking back control to save the country.

• The Council of Twelve was elected to run the country, which was effectively a peaceful coup that ignored Edward's authority.

• The Scots sent an embassy to Paris to meet King Philip IV, which was a secret and illegal diplomatic move against Edward.

• The Auld Alliance was signed in 1296, which was a military treaty with France specifically designed to fight against England.

• The Scots attacked Carlisle in 1296, which was their first military move and gave Edward the excuse he needed to invade Scotland.

• Balliol formally renounced his homage to Edward, which was a brave but final legal declaration of Scottish independence.

• The Scots prepared their defenses at Berwick, showing they were willing to suffer a siege rather than continue living under Edward's rule.

Subjugation of Scotland, 1296

• Edward sacked Berwick in March 1296, destroying Scotland's most important trade port and killing thousands of civilians.

• The Scottish army was routed at the Battle of Dunbar, which destroyed the only professional military force the Scots had.

• Edward captured almost the entire Scottish nobility at Dunbar, leaving the country leaderless and unable to organize further defense.

• Scottish castles like Edinburgh and Stirling surrendered quickly, showing that the Scottish will to fight had been broken by Edward's speed.

• Balliol was stripped of his royal robes at Stracathro, which was a ritual humiliation intended to show the Scottish monarchy was finished.

• Balliol was sent to the Tower of London, which removed the symbol of Scottish independence from the country entirely.

• The Stone of Destiny was stolen and taken to London, which was a symbolic "theft" of the Scottish identity and right to crown kings.

• Edward appointed John de Warenne as Governor of Scotland, turning the kingdom into a conquered province ruled by English officials.

William Wallace and Scottish Resistance

• Resistance grew after the 1296 takeover, because the Scottish people were angry at the high taxes and the "Englishness" of the new government.

• Wallace emerged as a leader after killing the Sheriff of Lanark, which turned a local grievance into a national rebellion.

• The victory at Stirling Bridge (1297) gave the Scots control of the "gateway to the north," effectively cutting the English occupation in half.

• Wallace was made Guardian, which gave the resistance movement a legitimate political leader to act in the name of King John Balliol.

• Andrew Murray led the rebellion in the North, capturing key castles like Inverness and Urquhart, proving the resistance was a national effort.

• The Battle of Falkirk (1298) was a devastating loss that proved the Scottish schiltrons were vulnerable to English longbows.

• Wallace resigned as Guardian, which allowed the Scottish nobility to take back control of the resistance movement.

• Wallace traveled to France and Rome seeking support, which kept the Scottish cause alive in the courts of Europe.

• Scottish resistance continued using guerrilla warfare, which exhausted English resources and made it impossible for Edward to fully govern.

• Wallace was executed in 1305, which Edward intended as a warning, but it actually provided the Scots with a martyr to inspire continued rebellion.

Scottish Resistance, 1297-98

• High taxes were imposed by the English Treasurer Cressingham, which made the occupation unpopular with the ordinary "small folk" of Scotland.

• Forced recruitment for English wars in France angered the Scottish population, who had no desire to die for an English king.

• The behavior of English soldiers and officials led to local riots, which eventually flared into a nationwide rebellion.

• Wallace led a successful attack on the Scone parliament, which showed the English administration was vulnerable and disorganized.

• The "Capitulation at Irvine" saw the nobles surrender, leaving Wallace and Murray as the only true leaders of the resistance.

• The Lubeck Letter (1297) was sent to Europe, which proudly declared that Scotland had been "recovered from the power of the English."