biol exam 2

Know our system of biological classification (domain, phylum, class, etc.)

• Domain \n • Kingdom \n • Phylum \n • Class \n • Order \n • Family \n • Genus \n • Species

Domain

is the highest taxonomic rank of all organisms taken together. According to the _______ system, the tree of life consists of either three domains such as Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya,\[1\] or two domains consisting of Archaea and Bacteria, with Eukarya included in Archaea.

kingdom

the second highest taxonomic rank, just below domain. ______ are divided into smaller groups called phyla. Traditionally, some textbooks from the United States and Canada used a system of six ________ (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaebacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria) while textbooks in Great Britain, Bangladesh, India, Greece, Brazil and other countries use five kingdoms only (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Monera).

Phylum

a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. ______means a race or a tribe that’s different from others based on some characteristic features. Ex.

class

***_____*** is a taxonomic rank (a taxon) consisting of organisms that share a common attribute; it is further divided into one or more orders. In the biological classification of organisms, a _____ is a major taxonomic rank below the *phylum* (or *division*) and above the *order*. For example, Mammalia belongs to the phylum Chordata. Mammalia consists of various orders, such as Chiroptera (bats), Primates (apes), Carnivora (dogs, cats, jaguar, bears, etc.), Cetacea (whales), Proboscidea (elephants), and many others.

order

is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between family and class. In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. An immediately higher rank, super__ __,__ is sometimes added directly above order, with sub__ directly beneath ____. An ___ can also be defined as a group of related families. Ex. horses and monkeys are both mammals therefore monkeys have an*_______ called primates.*

Family

is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between order and genus.\[1\] A family may be divided into sub-------, which are intermediate ranks between the ranks of ------ and genus. The official ------ names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the ------ Juglandaceae, but that ------ is commonly referred to as the "walnut -------".

What belongs to a ------—or if a described------ should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no hard rules for describing or recognizing a -----, but in plants, they can be characterized on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of plant species. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions, and there may be no broad consensus across the scientific community for some time. The publishing of new data and opinions often enables adjustments and consensus.

Genus

a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.\[1\] In the hierarchy of biological classification, ----- comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclature, the ----- name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus.

E.g. *Panthera leo* (lion) and *Panthera onca* (jaguar) are two species within the ---- *Panthera*. *Panthera* is a --- within the family Felidae.

species

basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A ----- is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour or ecological niche. In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.

humans all belong to one ------ (the scientific name of our --- is Homo sapiens), and we differ from other species, such as gorillas or dogs or dandelions.

What is a binomial species name, how is it written out

consists of a genus name and specific epithet. The scientific names of species are italicized. The genus name is always capitalized and is written first; the specific epithet follows the genus name and is not capitalized. There is no exception to this.

What is a phylogeny

The evolutionary development or history of a species or of a taxonomic group of organisms.

Why do we construct phylogenetic trees

the species of interest are shown at the tips of the tree's branches. The branches themselves connect up in a way that represents the evolutionary history of the species—that is, how we think they evolved from a common ancestor through a series of divergence (splitting-in-two) events.

What is an outgroup

a group of organisms not belonging to the group whose evolutionary relationships are being investigated.

Why is phylogenetic reconstruction difficult

.The DNA differences is vast

What are the major components of a phylogentic tree (e.g., root, node, branch, sister group, etc.)

Branches, nodes, polytomy, tips, sister taxa, root, outgroup, Monophyletic

Branches

populations or species through time.

Nodes

splitting or cladogenic events, splitting events - normally bifurcating, splitting into two (most resovled state)

polytomy

more than two descendants emerge from a node

tips

terminal nodes, endpoints (present day or end of the line)

sister taxa

groups that occupy adjacent branches on the tree

Taxa plural, taxon singular

an organism or group of organisms

Root

the bottom or basal most node, ancestor to all taxa on the tree

Monophyletic

ancestor and all of its descendants

How are phylogenetic trees constructed

may be built using morphological (body shape), biochemical, behavioral, or molecular features of species or other groups.

Define cladistics

A method of classifying living organisms based on the construction and analysis of cladograms.

What is an ancestral character

a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

What is a derived character

trait that appears in recent parts of a lineage, but not in its older members

What is a synapomorphy, why are they important

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What is homology

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What is homoplasy (analogy)

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How do you differentiate homoplasy from homology on a phylogenetic tree

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How does maximum parsimony help you to select among possible trees

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Review major differences between the three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

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Are Prokaryotes monophyletic Why or why not

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When did prokaryotes first evolve, how were they instrumental in changing the atmosphere

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Where do you find them prokaryotes Why are they important

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What is nitrogen fixation in plants

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What are the basic morphological features of bacteria

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How do gram-positive bacteria differ from gram-negative

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How do bacteria exchange genetic material and reproduce

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Review metabolic diversity across prokaryotes

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Review the human interests in prokaryots - in terms of human health and ecosystem services provided

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Be familiar with the role of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle and eutrophication

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What is the domain Eukarya

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What is the endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotes - what is the evidence supporting it

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Mitochondria are most closely related to what group of bacteria

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To what group are chloroplasts most closely related

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What is the difference between primary and secondary endosymbiosis, and how can you tell the difference between the two

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Do protists form a monophyletic group

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Review the human interests in protists - in terms of human health and ecosystem services provided

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What innovative reproductive technique is first seen in protists, and why is it important

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Be familiar with a haploid and diploid life cycles

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What is alternation of generations

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What structure produces spores

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What do spores grow into

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What structure produces gametes

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What do gametes grow into

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What are the ecosystem services provided by fungi

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What are advantages and disadvantages of hyphae and mycelia

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What are mycorrhizal fungi

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Understand how fungi are able to decompose plant tissue and their role in the carbon cycle

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Be familiar with the basics of fungal reproduction (mating types, plasmogamy, karoygamy)

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How old are plants

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Why are plants also called 'embryophytes'

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What are the derived traits of plants, and which were the most important in contributing to plants successfully colonizing terrestrial habitats

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Why are plants important for essential ecosystem services

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What are the synapomorphies for green plants

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What are the major groups of land plants

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Are they monophyletic

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Review the basics of plant phylogeny

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What is the most derived and diverse group of land plants What is the primary key innovation for this group

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What are the major key innovations that allowed green plants to diversify on land

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What was required for plants to successfully transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial habitat

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What adaptation allowed seeded plants able to reproduce in the absence of water

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