sports psych year 1

Personality

pattern of thoughts and feelings and the way in which we interact with our environment and other people that make us a unique person.

 

Type a traits

work fast, and have a strong desire to succeed. Like control but prone to high levels of stress. Highly motivated and competitive, more likely to show aggression in sport.

Type b traits

working slow, lacking desire to succeed, doesn’t enjoy control but not prone to suffer stress. More relaxed and tolerant approach.

Stable personality traits

quite predictable and secure with emotions and behaviours. Steady levels of competitiveness or calmness.

Unstable / neurotic personality traits

unpredictable with their emotions and behaviours, could be aggressive by amount of aggression varies making it unpredictable.

Introvert personality traits

do not require external stimulation as they don’t seek social situations but prefer quieter one to one, good at concentrating. quiet, reserved, thoughtful -  more suited to individual sports

Extrovert personality traits

they require external stimulation as they seek social situations and excitement, they lack concentration. Sociable, talkative, outgoing, risk - taking - more suited to team sports.

Reticular activating system

part of our brain that responds to external stimulation. extraverts have an RAS that is naturally low in arousal levels meaning they actively seek out external stimulation to achieve higher levels, an introvert has an RAS that Is naturally higher in arousal levels and more sensitive to external stimulation. And therefore doesn’t actively seek it out.

State anxiety

anxiety felt in a particular situation. Somatic = body’s response, cognitive = psychological worry over the situation. This can occur during a sports situation.

Social learning theory

Personality is learned from the environment through observing others (role models) and through reinforcement (rewards and punishment).

Trait learning theory

Personality is innate and stable. We are born with certain traits that stay consistent and influence how we behave.

Interactionist theory

Personality is a combination of inherited traits (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). Behaviour is the result of both working together.

Trait theory advantages

• Easy to predict behaviour in different situations

• Easy to measure personality using questionnaires 

• Personality is influenced by genetics

Trait theory disadvantages

• Ignores effect of environment and learning

• Doesn’t explain how personality can change

• Behaviour is not always consistent in very situation

• Identical twins brought up in different environments don’t demonstrate same personality therefore suggests its not just traits that determine this

Social learning advantages

• Personality can change depending on environment

• Shows we can learn the correct behaviour from people around us

• Bobo doll experiment supports

Social learning disadvantages

• Does not take into account genetics

• May be viewed as too simplistic

• Children brought up in the same way don’t always display same personality

Interactionist advantages

• Accepts we are born with traits but behaviour can change through experience

• Explains why behaviour can be unpredictable

Interactionist disadvantages

• Harder to measure

• Harder to predict exact behaviour

Attitudes

a predisposition to act in a particular way to someone or something in a persons environment. Learned rather than innate + so therefore unstable

Prejudice

preconceived opinion based on false / biased information

Factors that affect how attitudes are formed

• parents

• Religion

• Media

• Culture

• Education

Triadic model 3 components

Beliefs, emotions, behaviour

Beliefs

Cognitive - beliefs form what we have learnt form others and past experiences

Emotions

Affective - Our emotions are how we feel about something, if we like it or not, this is based on past experiences

 

Behaviour

our behavioural response to that attitude. If the cognitive and affective responses are positively linked the behaviour will be positive.

What happens if one component doesn’t match the others

Attitude could be changed or behaviour might not reflect one component of attitude

Persuasive communication

key tool as a PE teacher or sports coach. If you can persuade someone to think exercise or performing a skill is fun, they’re more likely to try it

3 key aspects of effectiveness of persuasive communication

• The person doing the persuading

• The quality of the message

• characteristics of who is being persuaded

Cognitive dissonance

Works by exposing the individual to one or more opposing beliefs. This causes disharmony or conflict within the attitude and the individual feels uneasy - can also be used to promote positivity by making sport enjoyable to change negative attitudes

Motivation

Drive to learn and be successful

Intrinsic motivation

inner drive to participate and be successful, to take part for fun, enjoyment, satisfaction or priDe

Extrinsic motivation

drive to perform or be successful for reasons such as rewards, medals, status, praise or recognition from others

Intrinsic motivation advantages

• Intrinsic rewards may be more valuable as the individual is partaking for their own gain

• May encourage lifelong participation / more long term

• Less pressure on performer

• More focused on enjoyment

Intrinsic motivation disadvantages

• Cognitive learners may find it difficult and less enjoyable so may require more encouragement than just intrinsic motivation

• May not be enough to maintain motivation

Extrinsic motivation advantages

• Extrinsic rewards may have more of a significant impact - e.g. prize money increases income and facilities / equipment

• Extrinsic rewards may increase confidence

• May be an effective way to get beginners starting sport with rewards

Extrinsic motivation disadvantages

• If rewards are removed motivation may decline

• May not lead to long term participation

• Cannot control other peoples performances so aiming for winning may be less effective.

Arousal

• the intensity of our emotion , motivation, and behaviour

Drive theory

• Relationship between arousal and performance is linear. higher arousal level intensifies dominant response, if the dominant response was correct then performance will be enhanced. If dominant response was incorrect then performance could decrease

• Drive may be reduced if the individual loses motivation = drive reductioN

Drive theory advantages

• Simple to understand - clear relationship

• More reliable by relating arousal to dominant response

Drive theory disadvantages

• Quality of performance doesn’t always improve if arousal increases

• Too simplistic view of relationship

• Doesn’t take into account personality / skill

• Doesn’t explain why some skills are performed well at low arousal

 

Inverted u theory

• There is an optimum arousal level and if aroused more than this performance will decline.

• At lower levels of arousal the performer will not be physiologically or psychologically ready to perform their best

Optimum arousal levels for each sport depend on :

• Type of activity - gross skills require high arousal , fine skills require low arousal

• Skill level of performer - the more skilful the performer, the higher the optimum arousal could be

• Personality of performer- the more extrovert the performer, the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance.

Inverted u theory advantages

• True that there is a certain optimum point of arousal

• Shows that above or below optimum performance wont be best

• Recognises that optimum arousal level differs for each sport / person / skill

Inverted u theory disadvantages

• Optimum arousal may not be at mid point

• Doesn’t explain how perfromance can recover after over arousal

 

Catastrophe theory

• dramatic decline in performance when arousal is raised above the optimum

• 2 types of arousal - somatic + cognitive. Cognitive is important for determining  performers reaction to high stress

• As somatic arousal increases so does performance, optimal levels of arousal can only be reached with lower levels of cognitive arousal

• If high levels of both then performance will decrease dramatically

• If after the catastrophe, CA decreases then performance can improve

Catastrophe advantages

• Gives a realistic explanation for why performers can crumble in big events

• Shows that performers can recover by lowering arousal to improve performance

• More realistic

• Sudden decrease in performance more accurate than gradual decline

Catastrophe disadvantages

• Not all performers have a dramatic decline in performance when over aroused

• Some performers cope well with cognitive arousal by using stress management techniques

State anxiety

anxiety with a particular situation - often linked to competitive anxiety where individual will feel anxious about potentially losing or getting injured e.g. getting nervous in a competition

Trait anxiety

can happen in any situation as it is more innate rather than linked to a particular situation

Cognitive anxiety responses

to the way in which we think and feel psychologically

Somatic anxiety response

what happens physically in the body and there the physiological response

Cognitive anxiety response examples

• worrying

• Self doubt

• Difficulty concentrating

• Over thinking

Somatic anxiety responses examples

• sweating

• Increased heart rate

• Shallow / rapid breathing

Cognitive anxiety impact on performance

Affected decision making

May make mistakes

Lack motivation

Somatic anxiety impact on performance

Fatigue may reduce performance

Zone of optimal functioning

When an athletes arousal / anxiety levels are at optimum level to give best performance. - different for different performers.

Agression

Any form of behaviour that involves intentionally harming or injuring another person

Assertion

Playing with high levels of emotion and intensity but within rules of the game and without intent to harm

Instinct theory of agression

Aggression is a natural and innate response

Instinct theory advantages

Agression is predictable in some people, can be a natural human instinct to be aggressive

Instinct theory disadvantages

Implies all humans are the same, so it’s generalised and simplistic. Doesn’t account for environmental factors

Social learning theory of aggression

Learned response from copying behaviour of others. If they observe aggressive behaviour they are likely to learn and copy.

Social learning theory advantages

Supported by bobo doll study, if they’re a role model you’re more likely to pay attention

Social leaning theory disadvantages

People can be aggressive without ever seeing it, doesnt take into account individual personality

Frustration agression hypothesis

An obstacle or barrier to a goal causes frustration which causes agression. Either results in success and relief or punishment.

Frustration aggression hypothesis advantages

More realistic, can be used to help coaches manage aggression

Frustration aggression hypothesis disadvantages

Frustration may not always lead to aggression, doesnt take into account different circumstances or environments

Aggressive cue hypothesis

When an individual is frustrated there’s an increase in arousal level which leads to a readiness to be aggressive.

Agressive cue advantages

Most realistic

Aggressive cue disadvantages

Frustration may not always lead to aggression

Somatic techniques to reduce aggression

• deep breathing

• Progressive muscular relaxation

Cognitive techniques to reduce agression

• mental rehearsal

• Visualisation

• Setting SMART goals

• Punishment

Social facilitation

Positive influence of other who may be watching or competing on sport

Social inhibition

The negative influence of others who may be watching or competing, which leads to a decrease in sports performance

Factors affecting influence of an audience

Personality of performer

Type of skill performed

Level of experience

Introverts + extroverts

extroverts tend to seek social situations with high arousal and so, tend to perform better with an audience

Beginners and experts

• Previous experiences in front of an audience can affect performance. more skilled and elite, more likely to perform better in front of others than as a beginner as the crowd could distract your focus.

Simple and complex skills

• Lower levels of arousal are better to increase performance if the skill is more complex due to the decision making and concentration required. If skill is more simple, higher levels of arousal can be managed and are often better to increase performance.

Gross and fine skills

• If skill is a gross skill then higher levels of arousal  from the presence of others is desirable to increase performance.

• If the skill is fine and intricate then the arousal form an audience could cause social inhibition if not managed

Evaluation apprehension

When a performers arousal level or anxiety increases because they can see judgement by others in the audience. The performer thinks or perceive that others are judging them so they become anxious and less confident which negatively impacts on performance .

This could be because they know someone in the crowd or there is a coach or scout who’s opinion matters to them

Strategies to help limit effects of social inhibition or apprehension

• Mental rehearsal/imagery may help to block out the audience so that they don't distract the performer

• Practicing in front of an audience may help the performer to become accustomed to them and stop them having a negative effect.

• Using selective attention to only focus on relevant cues

Why is goal setting important

• helps focus attention on a task

• Increases motivation

• Reduces anxiety

• Monitors progress

SMART goals

Specific, measurable, achievable, recorded, time phased

Specific

Goals must be specific to individual, sport, and focus needed to improve performance

Measurable

Goals must be able to be assessed

Achievable

Goals must eb within reach of performer so motivation remains high , not too easy or hard

Recorded

Goals that have been agreed must be recorded so progress can be monitored

Time phased

Enough time must be given to achieve the goal. Long goals should be split into to shorter ones.

Performance goals

directed towards individuals personal standards - how they carry out the skill.

Outcome goals

goals that are directed towards an end result of an activity

Process goals

goals that are used to improve a specific process or skill and are often related to technique

Objective goals

• specific measurable and have a definite outcome eg running 5km under 25 mins

-provide a concrete benchmark for progress

Subjective goals

• broader statements based on feelings eg want to be a better team player

-hold significant personal meaning

-intangible and immeasurable

Realistic goals

match the performers current abilities and effort

Aspirational goals

ambitious and inspire performers to push beyond their comfort zone

• should balance realistic and aspiration goals

Short term goals

Weeks to months

Boost motivation and confidence quickly

Medium goals

A few months

Acts as a bridge between short and long term to keep motivation consistent and allow adaptation of goals

Long term goals

May span years

Create clear vision for future and provide direction

Group

Collection of people who share similar goals and interact with each other

Team cohesion

important part of team performance. Coaches and team members needs to work hard to correctly form a team that has positive cohesion. A team can perform poorly and not win but still have positive cohesion. A team that is winning and performing well also shows good cohesion,