AP 1 Final

brain, endocrine, ANS

What are ventricles?

internal cavities filled with CSF

What is the function of the cerebrum?

higher mental functions

What are bundles of white matter called?

tracts

How is white matter and gray matter in the brain?

white matter is the inner portion while gray matter is the outer region and there isn’t much of it

What’s the function of the corpus callosum?

connect the right and left hemispheres of cerebrum

What are sulci and gyri?

sulci: grooves in the brain

gyri: raised tissue of brain

What’s the function of the frontal lobe?

planning and executing movement (concious thought)

What is the central sulcus, precentral gyrus, and postcentral gyrus?

central sulcus: borders frontal and parital lobes

precentral gyrus: within the frontal lobe

postcentral gyrus: within the parital lobe

What’s the function of the parital lobe?

processing and integrating sensory information

What’s the function of the temporal lobe?

auditory

What’s the function of the occipital lobe?

vision

Where is it and what’s the function of the Broca’s area?

within frontal lobe; produce speech sounds

Where is it and what’s the function of the Wernicke’s area?

within temporal and parietal lobes; understanding language

What are the types of aphasia?

Broca’s aphasia: can understand, but not speak

Wernicke’s aphasia: can speak, but not understand

What is the cerebral cortex (neocortex) and it’s function?

made of gray matter and most complex and recently evolved region of brain; functions in conscious process and higher functions

What are the different types of cerebral white matter?

commissural fibers: connect right and left hemispheres

projection fibers: connect cerebral cortex to the same hemisphere

What is the diencephalon and it’s different parts?

inner protion of the brain; thalamus, hypothalamus, mammillary bodies, and pineal gland

What is the function of the thalamus?

recieve input; related to emotions, memory, and mood

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

rage, aggression, hunger, thirst, sleeping patterns, control pitutary gland

What is the function of the mammillary bodies within the hypothalamus?

memory regulation to smell and chewing, licking, and swallowing

What is the function of the pineal gland?

secretes melatonin (regulates sleep/wake cycle)

What is the function of the cerebellum?

coordinate movement, balance, equilibrium, and walking; divided into 2 hemispheres connected by vermis

What is the cerebellar cortex?

consists of branching white matter called arbor vitae

What is the function of the brainstem and what it includes?

vital to survival (oldest portion of brain), controls basic functions (heart rate, breathing, and reflexes); medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

heart rate, breathing, vomiting, and coughing

What is the function of the pons?

breathing

What is the function of the midbrain?

vital to life

What is the cerebral aqueduct?

connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles

What are colliculi?

deal with auditory and vision

What’s the structure of cranial meninges?

contain dura, arachnoid, and pia

What is CSF?

normally clear liquid with the same composition of blood plasma; it cushions, removes waste, and maintains temperature

What is the choroid plexus and how does it work?

where CSF is made; capillaries make contact with ependymal cells and CSF circulates around the brain and get reabsorbed via arachnoid granulations in dural sinus

What is hydrocephaly?

blockage of drainage of CSF

How much blood goes to the brain and why?

20% of total blood flow; needs alot of oxygen, glucose, and nutrients

What things easily pass, slowly pass, and dont pass through the blood-brain barrier?

easily pass: water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nonpolar lipid-based molecules, alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine

slowly pass: glucose, amino acids, and ions

dont pass: large polar molecules, proteins, and antibiotics

What are the 12 cranial nerves, their function, and motor vs. sensory?

olfactory I: smell; sensory

optic II: vision; sensory

occulomotor III: control superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, and inferior oblique; motor

trochlear IV: control superior oblique and lateral rectus; motor

trigeminal V: control forehead, maxillae, mandible, teeth, and masseter; both

abducens VI: control eye movement; motor

facial VII: control facial expressions, Bell’s palsy, hypocalcemia, checking tetany, and salivary glands; both

auditory VIII: hearing; sensory

glossopharyngeal IX: control tongue and pharynx; both

vagus X: decreate heart rate, increase stomach contractions, and pharynx; both

spinal accessory XI: control trapezius, rotate head, and shrug shoulders; motor

hypoglossal XII: tongue movement (rolling); motor

What’s the difference between a TIA and CVA?

TIA: no neurological defects; temporary stroke

CVA: is brain damage; full stroke

What are the different types of CVA?

ischemic: decrease of blood supply to brain

hemorrhagic: rupture of blood vessel in brain

What’s the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic hormones?

hydrophobic: can cross the plasma membrane

hydrophilic: cannot cross the plasma membrane

How do amino-acid hormones enter the cell and some examples?

need a carrier protein to enter; T3 & T4, epinephrine and norepinephrine

How do peptide hormones enter the cell and some examples?

use G-receptor to enter; all pituitary hormones, insulin, and glucagon

How do steroids enter the cell and some examples?

made of lipids so they go right through; estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

How are steroids and amines given?

pill or shot

How are peptides given?

must be a shot so that peptide bonds don’t break in the stomach

What are the steps of the G-protein receptor

1. hydrophilic hormone binds to a receptor (1st messenger) in membrane

2. G-protein activates adenylate cyclase

3. enzyme catalyzes the formation of cyclic AMP (2nd messenger)

4. cAMP activates protein kinases

What turns off cAMP (cyclic AMP)?

phosphodiesterase (PDE)

How do the hypothalamus and pituitary gland interact?

hypothalamus controls the pituitary and they are connected by the infundibulum

How do the anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary work?

anterior: creates hormones

posterior: stores hormones from hypothalamus

What are the hormones of the hypothalamus?

somatotrophs: growth hormone releasing hormone, produces growth hormone

lactotrophs: lactin releasing hormone, produces prolactin

corticotrophs: produce corticotropin releasing hormone, produce ACTH; produce melanocyte releasing hormone, produce MSH

thyrotrophs: produce thyrotropin releasing hormone, produce thyroid stimulation

gonadotropins: produce gonadotropin releasing hormone, produce gonadotropins

What is the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system?

specialized blood supply that allows the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to deliver hormones to target cells

What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary?

growth hormone (GH): regulates growth

prolactin (PRL): initiates milk production

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): targets thyroid gland to produce T3 & T4

adrenocorticotropic (ACTH): stimulates adrenal gland

luteinizing hormone (LH):

male: produce testosterone

female: produce estrogen and progesterone

follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH):

male: produce testosterone

female: mature ovarian follicles

melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH): stimulates melanocytes (increases during pregnancy)

What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary?

antidiuretic (ADH): decreases urination and increases water retention, responds to an increase of solute in blood and decrease in blood volume and pressure; allows NaCl reabsorption from kidney tubules into blood and water will follow (alcohol inhibits)

oxytocin: controls mammary glands and uterus smooth muscle

• lets milk come down from breast

• stimulate contractions during childbirth

What is diabetes insipidus?

disease with a lack of ADH; caused by trauma to the hypothalamus; unable to conserve water (can urinate 20L a day)

What are the cells of the pancreas?

alpha cells: secrete peptide glucagon

beta cells: secrete protein insulin

What does glucagon do and when is it produced?

increases levels of glucose and metabolic fuels in blood (increase of blood sugar = increase of energy); produced between meals, during exercise, and eating low in carbs

What is glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenesis?

glycogenolysis: glycogen from storage breaks down to glucose and is put in blood for energy; stimuilated by glucagon

gluconeogenesis: produce glucose from amino acids or lipids in storage and is put in blood for energy; stimulated by glucagon

glycogenesis: create glycogen from glucose in blood and put in storage; stimulated by insulin

What does insulin do?

decreases levels of glucose in blood; decrease blood sugar and energy

What is hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia?

hypoglycemia: low blood glucose levels

hyperglycemia: high blood glucose levels

What is Type I Diabetes mellitus?

beta cells are destroyed and there is no insulin; causes polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, and weight loss (due to getting energy from adipose instead of glucose); also causes ketone bodies

What are ketone bodies?

acidity in blood caused by getting energy from adipose instead of glucose; causes lethargy and sweet breath smell

What is ketonuria and glucosuria?

ketonuria: ketones in urine

glucosuria: glucose in urine

What is Type II Diabetes mellitus?

insulin target tissues become insenstive to insulin; caused by genetics or obesity; causes polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia

What are common side effects of Type I and II diabetes mellitus?

damages blood vessels particulary in the heart and lower limbs, damages peripheral nerves, effects lens of the eye and kidneys

What is the treatment for Type 1 DM?

insulin shots and diet/exercise

What is the glucose tolerance test and normal vs. diabetic levels?

fast overnight then drink 75g of sugar within 5 minutes and test blood glucose in 2hrs; normal: <140mg/dl

diabetic: >200mg/dl

What is the treatment for Type 2 DM?

1. diet/exercise

2. oral drugs that stimulate insulin secretion

3. insulin shots

What is a diabetic coma vs. insulin shock, and how should you treat if unknown?

diabetic coma: extremely high blood glucose (treat w/ insulin)

insulin shock: overdose of insulin (treat w/ glucagon shot)

if unknown give glucagon, insulin could kill

What are follicular cells (colloid)?

precursor for thyroid hormone (needs iodine)

What is the main function of the thyroid?

regulation of metabolism

What do the hormones T3 and T4 do?

promotes growth and development

When is there an increase of T3 and T4?

increase in growth, pregnancy, cold environment

How is T3 and T4 released from the thyroid?

1. hypothalamus release thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)

2. anterior pituitary releases thyroid stimulatin hormone (TSH)

3. thyroid releases T3 and T4

What is cretinism?

hypothyroidism in infancy; lack of T4 from birth; causes mental defects and stunted growth

What is Hashimotos?

hypothyroidism in adulthood; low T3 and T4, high TRH and TSH; characterized by weight gain, cold intolerance, slow heart rate, low blood pressure, myxedema, and constipation

What is goiter?

enlarged thyroid gland (in both hyper and hypothyroidism)

What is Grave’s disease?

hyperthyroidism; high T3 and T4, low TRH and TSH; characterized by weight loss, heat intolerance, protruding eyes, high heart rate, and diarrhea

What does the parathyroid glands do?

cause the thyroid to secrete calcitonin

What does calcitonin do?

lower calcium levels; excrete in urine and decrease of Ca absorption in GI

What does the parathyroid hormone do?

increase calcium levels; increase absorption of Ca in GI, increase osteclast activity, and decrease excretion of urine

What are regular calcium levels?

8.5mg/dl-11mg/dl

What is hypoparathyroidism?

decrease of parathyroid hormone; decreases calcium and increases muscle tetany; caused by gland taken out or diminished

What is hyperparathyroidism?

increase of parathyroid hormone; increases calcium and muscle weakness; caused by a tumor

What is the zona glomerulosa?

in adrenal cortex; produce mineralocorticoid

What is aldosterone?

main mineralocorticoid; increases water retention (NaCl goes from kidney tubules to blood and water follows) and excretes potassium if it is too high in the blood

What is hyperaldosteronism?

low levels of potassium and high levels of sodium (high blood pressure)

What does low aldosterone do?

increase potassium that negatively effects the heart

What are glucocorticoids?

produced in fasculata and reticularis; stress response- give energy with glucose levels and anti-inflammatory

What is Cushing’s disease?

over secretion of ACTH and glucocorticoids caused by tumor; adipose deposited in trunk, face, and back of neck from the limbs; slight increase of aldosterone which causes hypertension and immunosuppression

What is Addison’s disease?

low cortisol and aldosterone; increases potassium and decreases sodium; low blood pressure, heart palpitations, and hyperpigmentation

What are chromaffin cells?

secrete epinephrine hormone; increases hearet rate, dilates bronchioles, constrict blood vessels, dilate pupils, and decrease wastes

How do neurons work in the autonomic nervous system?

2 neuron pathways to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or a gland

What is the preganglionic neuron, autonomic ganglion, and postganglionic neuron?

preganglionic neuron: myelinated (fast)

autonomic ganglion: cell bodies that release neurotransmitter

postganglionic neuron: unmyelinated (slow)

What are characteristics of the sympathetic nervous system?

fight or flight; thoracic lumbar; short preganglionic and long postganglionic; dilates pupils, inhibits saliva, increases heart rate, dilates bronchi, dilates vessels to skeletal muscle, constrict peripheral vessels, glycogenolysis, stimulate epinephrine, inhibit urination, defecation, and lacrimation

What are characteristics of the parasympathetic nervous system?

SLUDD; craniosacral; long preganglionic and short postganglionic; constrict pupils, decrease heart rate, constrict bronchi, increase stomach contraction, increase salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, and defecation

What is paradoxical fear?

parasympathetic; no way to escape; stimulates defecation and urination

What is Acetycholine?

neurotrasmitter for all preganglionic and parasympathetic postganglionic; cholinergic

What is adrenergic?

release epinephrine and norepinephrine; sympathetic postganglionic

What is monoamine oxidase (MAO)?

breaks down epinephrine and norepinephrine; if taking MAO inhibiter, taking epinephrine may cause a stroke

What does the Beta1 receptor do?

increases heart rate and contraction

What do Beta-blockers do?

stop the response of Beta receptor; decreases heart rate and contraction