adolescence, Chapter 6, Chapter 7 General Psych Rebecca Armstrong

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to young adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period between sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self concept; the part of our answer to “who am i?” that comes from our group memberships

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of physical energy such as sights, sounds, and smells, and our psychological experience to them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perception drawing on our experience and expectation

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of faint stimulus (signal) amid background simulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

subliminal stimulation

presenting something below one’s absolute thresholds for conscious awareness

priming

the activation, often unconsciously of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd)

Weber’s law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of a constant stimulation

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue green, and so forth

intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what those with typical vision or hearing perceive as brightness or loudness. intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height)

retina

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accommodation

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the reina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and grey, and are sensitive to movement. rods are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones dont respond

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or well-lit conditions. cones detect fine details and give rise to color sensations

optic nerve

the nerve that carries the neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye creating a “blind spot” because no receptor cells are located there.

fovea

the central focal point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. for example inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

feature detectors

nerves cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surrounding (the ground)

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computers distance—the grater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artifically displaced or even inverted visual field

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; frequency

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones—hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes)—that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals and vestibular sacs

sensorineural hearing loss

the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (also called place coding)

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (also called temporal coding)

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. the “gate” is opened up by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggest to another (the subject) the certain perception, feelings, thought, or behaviors will spontaneously occurs

dissaciation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion made during a hypnosis session to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms.

gustation

our sense of taste

olfaction

sense of smell

kinesthesia

our movement sense—our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

our balance sense—our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis (telekinesis)

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and realtively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimuli

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, weather by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result to illustrate with pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation for a second stimulus (food)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologist today agree with 1 but not 2

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage — when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioned, the strengthening of a reinforced response)

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (also called second-order conditioning)

extiction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response— when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

generalization

(also called Stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response it strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that when removed strengthens a response. (Note: negative reinforcement is NOT a punishment)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. (Also known as secondary reinforcer)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs