REL223 FINAL

Indus Valley Civilization

• or Harappa Culture

  • mohenjodaro

  • harappa

• conservative estimates: 2750 BCE, possibly older

Aryans

• The Indo-Europeans

• “high born”

• Aryan migration theory

  • estimated time of arrival: 2000-1500 BCE

• composed poems and manuals on ritual and philosophy that were the basis for the Vedas

• Rig Veda is the earliest scripture of the Aryans

• Dr. Knight believes the Aryans brought early ideas/the basis for the caste system and it was later formed/fixed (later entrenched into society)

Shruti

• that which is revealed (the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, and its truths have been divinely revealed

• refers to the manifestation of the divine in the world, particularly to the truths revealed to the early sages or rishis which were later brought together in the form of scriptures

• shruti texts: the Veda and the Upanishads

Smriti

• that which is “remembered” or “handed down”

• smriti texts are based upon revealed truth, but are of human composition

• smriti texts: Epics, Sutras, and Puranas

Vedas

• one of the most sacred scriptures

• ritualistic

• there are four collections which constitute the Veda

  • Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda

• the first three contain hymns and mantras; the fourth, spells and charms

• earliest known Hindu scriptures

Upanishads

• they focus on otherworldly concerns: moksha

• focused on teaching people how to gain higher knowledge, internal reflection, and self realization

• word upanishad means “sitting near” and implies that these texts were secret scriptures taught by a sage to a disciple

• the principle upanishads include Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha, Maitri, and Shvetashvatara

samsara

continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth

karma

• karma is the universal law of cause and effect

  • samsara is fueled by a chain of cause and effect linked to action (karma) (knott chpt 3)

• in the west, karma is often associated with fatalism and reincarnation

moksha

• liberation from Samsara (eternal cycle of life, death, rebirth)

• in Buddhism this is Nirvana

dharma

• religious duty

• covers so much more than just duty, texts, traditions

• truth, law, duty, or obligation

• dharma has both a general and a personal application (knott 17)

  • the harmony of the world must be maintained, and an individual’s dharma must be fulfilled

• men were expected to follow their own dharma according to their social class, varna, and stages of life, ashrama

Vedanta

• philosophical system

  • focusing on the teachings of the vedas

Vedantin

• philosophers; look at philosophical texts like Upanishads

Advaita Vedanta

• believe by Shankara, an 8th and 9th Century CE Philosopher

• dvaita = dual but a at the beginning of “advaita” negates the word so advaita = non dual

• Shankara believed that we’re all ultimately Brahman (we’re all ultimately one)

Dvaita Vedanta

• believe presented by Madhva, 13th century

• he believed Shankara was very wrong

• believed atman (the soul) and Brahman are COMPLETELY DIFFERENT

  • atman ≠ brahman

Shankara

• 8th and 9th century CE philosopher

• believed that everything was Brahman

  • believe that we’re all ultimately Brahman (one self)

• remember Shankara and alcohol story

• Shankara was deeply influenced by Buddhism

• this thinking had a big influence on thinkers that came to the US and Europe

Ramanuja

• 11th-12th Century CE

• in the middle of Shankara and Madhva’s ideas

• unlike Shankara, Ramanuja didn’t believe that the differences we see are illusions

• God = Vishnu; he was devoted to Vishnu, believed worshipping Vishnu was good and better than trying to understand abstract concepts

  • believed God wanted them to worship

• he focused on worship as a way to gain moksha

• thought Brahman and atman were related, but not the same

Madhva

• 13th Century CE

• believed in dvaita; he was a dualist

• to him, Shankara was very wrong; he believed atman (the soul) and Brahman were COMPLETELY DIFFERENT. atman ≠ brahman

• God = Krishna. Madhva was a big devotee to Krishna

  • believed there were no similarities between humans and God

• moksha looked like worshipping Krishna and asking for blessings

Brahman

• originally referred to creative power or truth

• later came to refer to the impersonal cosmic principle or absolute reality

  • the one absolute reality that is both the universal principle and the self or spiritual aspect of each person

atman

• the self

• the truth or self is the life force (brahman) within both the world and humanity

varna

• classes of society

• were organized hierarchically

• first three classes were called “twice-born,” with boys being given a second thread in an initiation ceremony. only “twice-born” males are entitled to hear the Veda (Knott 18)

jati

• caste

• jati means “birth”

• system of social divisions organized according to relative purity, with brahmins at one end of the spectrum (the highest) and dalit people (or untouchables) on the other end

Brahmin

• the mouth — priests

• ritual specialist associated with brahman

• the ones who recite the Vedic hymns and perform sacrifices

• aka brahmana and brahman

• the most pure

  • have to be the most careful with interactions

Kshatriya

• the arms — warrior

Vaishya

• the thighs — commoners

Sudra

• the feet — servants

Dalit

• the “untouchables”

• those at the very bottom; low caste

• considered impure and polluting to so-called “higher” castes

• forced to live outside the village, away from everyone else

Ashrama

• stages of life (4)

• conveys the idea of duties or obligations which fall to a person according to their particular social class and stage of life

• only “twice-born’ males undertook the original Ashrama

• four stages:

  1. student (brahmacharya)

  2. householder (grihastha)

  3. forest dweller (vanaprastha)

  4. renouncer (sannyasa)

Sannyasi/Sanyasini

• renouncer stage; you renounce everything you were (your name, your family, community, background, connections, etc.)

• you get a new name and a begging bowl

• few people do this

Indra

• a god, god of thunder (weather), was a warrior god

• ritual we watched in video was for Indra

Agni

• fire; god of fire

Laws of Manu (Manusmriti)

• 1st century CE

• dealt with Hindu law and conduct

• discussed in detail the ideas of social duty (Knott 36)

It outlines duties for individuals based on caste (varna) and life stages (ashrama), emphasizing karma, ritual purity, and the ruler's responsibility to maintain social order. The text is criticized for institutionalizing social inequality and strict gender roles

Rishi

Twice-Born

Cosmic Purusha

the primordial Cosmic Man, universal consciousness, and Supreme Being in Hinduism, representing the eternal, all-pervasive spirit from which the universe was created

Caste Endogamy

• marrying within one own’s jati (caste) to maintain social order and cultural/ritual purity

mantra

• sacred Sanskrit sounds, words, or phrases chanted to aid meditation, devotion, and spiritual growth

Dates of Indus River Valley Civ

dr knights slide said 2750 BCE (possibly older)

knott book says 2600-1800 BCE

Dates of Aryan “Invasion”

• estimated time of arrival of Aryans: 2000 - 1500 BCE

• it’s theorized that they had been moving around before really settling in the indus river area

• it’s theorized that they were later absorbed into other groups

• they were illiterate but had rituals and texts committed to memory

• they set the basis for the Vedas

Dates of Shruti and Smriti

Shruti

• 1500 BCE to 500 BCE

Smriti

• 600 BCE to 1000 BCE

  • Mahabharata - 4th century BCE

  • Manusmriti - 200 BCE to 200 CE

Know the changes in religious emphasis starting from Vedic period, the Upanishads, and the epics

Religious emphasis shifted from early Vedic rituals and polytheistic nature worship to abstract philosophy in the Upanishads, eventually focusing on personal devotion (bhakti) and epic morality. This evolution moved away from complex priestly sacrifices toward internal self-realization, karma, and the worship of personal gods like Vishnu and Shiva

Explain the main structure of the Agnicayana (role of Brahmins, yajamana, Agni, and Indra, the role of mantras)

Explain the differences among concepts of caste, varna, and jati.

Varna, jati, and caste differ primarily in scope and flexibility:

Varna is a theoretical, four-tier, pan-Indian social framework based on occupation or character,

while Jati consists of thousands of local, birth-based, endogamous communities.

Caste (or modern caste system) refers to the rigid, hierarchical, hereditary structure resulting from the evolution and tightening of these groups over time

Explain how the caste system functions, is maintained, and is justified.

The caste system is a rigid, hereditary form of social stratification that organizes society into a ranked hierarchy based on birth. It functions by dictating occupation, restricting marriage (endogamy), and regulating social interaction. Maintained through social pressure, segregation, and economic exclusion, it is often justified through religious interpretations of karma and the need for societal stability.

Explain how myth relates to and reflects society, drawing on examples.

Bhakti

means “devotion”

describes a passionate love for God (God is close and personal; you can have a close relationship w God)

Nirguna - Type of Bhakti

• kabir, virasaivas

• worship of the lord WITHOUT attributes

• challenge to…

  • religious orthodoxy

  • iconography

  • ritualism

  • social hierarchies

Saguna - Type of Bhakti

• mirabai

• worship of the lord WITH attributes

  • draw heavily on legends, epics, images, and characteristics of God

  • PUJA (worship) of MURTI (images)

Women’s Bhakti Practices, Views

• most women believe men aren’t equipped/qualified to carry out rituals

• while in a temple setting, everything is mediated, and the priest does everything, at home the women do everything

• in part, this is an extension of colonialization

  • women are seen as protectors of the home realm/domestic realm while men go off and work → DOMESTIC REALM BECOMES SACRED

  • this becomes a way for women to reaffirm their roles as spiritual experts/specialists

Mirabai : Background, Contributions as Bhakti Saint

• WOMAN

• she challenged male only Brahmin

• (podcast we listened to abt her)

Puja

• ritual or worship and adoration (through prayer, song, offerings/gifts, shrine cleaning etc.)

• meant to cultivate a direct, loving connection with the divine. expresses gratitude, used to seek blessings, and purify the mind, acting like a “bridge” between worshippers and dieties

• overtime, worshippers will move from seeing the deities as separate, to feeling a sense of oneness

Murti

• a sacred image, icon/idol, statue representing a deity

• serves as a focal point for devotion, meditation, and worship (PUJA)

Darshan

the reciprocal act of “seeing” and being seen by a deity, sacred object, or person (guru)

• MAKING EYE CONTACT WITH A MURTI

Prasad

• commonly a food offering

• presented to a deity during puja and subsequently presented to devotees as consecrated blessings

• usually ppl will take food and offerings to temples where they’ll then give them to a priest. the priest will then give part of the offering to the deity, the deity will bless it, and it’s then returned to the devotee. the devotee can then “consume” this

Purdah

• traditional social practice involving gender segregation and the covering of women in certain communities

• functions as a form of modesty, honoring family reputation, and separating male and female spheres, often restricting women to the home

from dr knight…

• reflects wealth/prestige of family

• also demonstration of modesty (especially in front of strange/unknown men)

  • veiling, accompanied by men

  • try to demonstrate a sense of self-respect

Dowry

assets given to the groom’s family by the bride’s family

• modern practices have become corrupted, sometimes extortionate

• no mention of dowry in Hindu texts…

• IT IS NOW ILLEGAL

Exogamy

• marrying outside one’s own social group (includes considerations of caste, tribes, community (and even one’s own family members))

• prohibits marriage within one’s own lineage since members have a common ancestor

• paternal lineage == GOTRA

  • marrying within one’s own gotra is prohibited

Endogamy

• (deeply rooted) practice of marrying within one’s own community, caste, or sub-caste

• typically requires marrying inside the same community (caste) and marrying outside the specific gotra

Joint Family

• extended family arrangement; everyone living together

• common male ancestor, his wife, lineal male descendants, their wives/widows, and unmarried daughters, ALL LIVING TOGETHER

Nuclear Family

• parents, children (main family)

Dr. Ambedkar

• 1891-1956

• helped write the Constitution of India

• Dalit Movement

  • he himself was a dalit but had access to education bc of a sponsor

• worked closely with other independence movement

• “principal architect of the Indian Constitution, the first Law and Justice Minister, and a tireless crusader for social justice. He fought for the rights of marginalized communities, abolished untouchability through legislation, and championed women’s rights and economic equality”

Mohandas Gandhi - View of Caste, Role in Independence Movement

• 1869-1948

• struggle for India’s Independence by non-violent means

• educated in England, worked in S. Africa as a lawyer

• VERY educated, influenced by Britain

• satyagraha: holding fast to truth/enthusiasm for truth

• worked to alleviate poverty, liberate women, and make untouchability illegal

  • making untouchability illegal meant not wanting dalits to be discriminated against

• influenced by idea of non-attachment and karma yoga

• “Harijans” - Children of God (untouchables)

• leader in Indian Congress Party

Ram Mohan Roy

• 1772-1833

• founded Brahmo Samaj (Society of God)

• focused on abolishing Sati, encouraged/fought for women’s rights

• he was a Brahmin, VERY educated, knew about Christianity and was very critical of it

  • was able to really dig into material and critique

• read the Upanishads and was educated on Hinduism

• went to temples, thought Purans and epics were irrational and rejected them

Periyar

• 1879-1973

• South Indian (Chennai)

• Dravidian Movement

  • dravidian is a language group in southern india. the idea is that they have different ideals

  • thought of southern independence from the north

• Self-Respect Movement

  • 1920s; inspired by idea of mixing the caste, promote dignity, equality, and self-respect among marginalized communities

Vivekananda

• 1863-1902

• founded Ramakrishna Mission

  • led to many more missions being opened around the world. WORKED FOR THE UPLIFTING OF SOCIETY

    • providing education and healthcare to all sects of society

    • not critical of temple worship

  • he was inspired by Ramakrishna

• preached about something similar to advaita vedanta

• he became important because of how he spread Hinduism to the West

Indian Nationalism

developed as a unified anti-colonial movement against British rule, uniting diverse populations. It is characterized by anti-colonial resistance

Hindu Nationalism

• Hindutva

• followers belief India should be a HINDU nation

• challenge religious syncretism, tolerance, and secularism

• gain political power (have been very successful)

• very effective at using religion to further their agenda

Hindu Nationalism’s Use of Religion & Religious Symbols

• very effective at using religion to further their agenda

• leverages religious symbols and identity to transform India into a Hindu nation, often blurring the line between faith and political ideology. Key strategies include centering public discourse on figures like Lord Ram, utilizing symbols such as the saffron flag and trishula, and reframing India as a sacred, unified motherland to mobilize voters, marginalize minorities, and promote a majoritarian state

British Colonialism’s Role in Hindu & Muslim Divide

• British Rule in India : 1757-1947

• the Indian subcontinent was united under British rule

• construction of Indian nation:

  • India = spiritual, in need of outside help bc they lacked the natural desire for liberty and had no solidarity; they were “backwards”

  • British = represented nationality, progress, liberty, secularism

  • divide & conquer

    • muslims = other/enemy

      • the British planted the idea that muslims were the enemy

      • Christians viewed muslims VERY negatively

  • the west believed it could “SAVE” the east

  • colonialists saw themselves reforming India and controlling India to gain wealth

East India Company

Partition of India

What:
When: 1947

Significance:

Moghul Rule

• When: established in 1526 by Babor, who built a mosque in Ayodhya

• Akbar the Great (1556-1605)

  • 3rd Mughal Ruler; tolerant, pluralist

    • tried to create his own religion which combined Hindu/Muslim element (flopped)

  • withdrew tax on non-Muslims

• Aurangzeb (1650-1707)

  • 6th Mughal Ruler

  • intolerant of Hindus, Muslims… he was not great

    • was a very strict Muslim & had a very narrow view of Islam

  • reinstated tax (on Hindus, etc.)

Babri Masjid

• Where: Ayodhya

• Significance: Mosque built by Babor. This Mosque was said to be built on over Ram’s exact birthplace. This exemplified Muslim hate from Hindus. The mosque was demolished in 1992 by a Hindu nationalist mob

Ayodhya

Ram’s birthplace/kingdom and it is rumored that

Hindutva

• followers belief India should be a HINDU nation

Lord Ram

• Significance to Hindutva: seen as a unifying icon for Hindutva. Acts as a cultural symbol of ideal governance and a rallying point for cultural and political mobilization

• he is seen as the embodiment of Hindu identity

• EMPHASIZES THEIR BELIEF THAT THEY ARE WARRIORS OF RAM

Cow Vigiliantism

What is it about?

• acts of violence, intimidation, and unlawful patrolling carried out by SELF-APPOINTED vigilante groups, primarily aimed at protected cows, which are sacred to India

• these groups often target Muslims and lower-caste Hindus. accusing them of slaughtering/transporting cows… resulting in violence against Muslims

Why is it important to take a critical lens to understanding why it is occurring in India?

Ethnicization (of Dalits)

How: transforms their caste-based status into a distinct ethnic identity, framing them as indigenous or marginalized groups (e.g., Adi Dravida, Adi Andhra) distinct from the dominant Hindu caste structure. This identification emphasizes shared oppression and heritage, fostering movements for rights, social change, and recognition of indigenous roots

Why: treating them as a distinct, endogamous group with a shared, stigmatized identity—stemmed from centuries of forced occupational segregation, ritual pollution taboos, and residential isolation from mainstream Hindu society. This was codified by hierarchical, caste-based stratification, rendering them into a separate group subjected to systemic exclusion

Ethnicization (of Muslims)

How: involves the framing of a diverse religious community as a monolithic, foreign, or "non-Indian" entity, often driven by political ideologies. they are often portrayed as separate from the native Hindu population, contributing to political marginalization. political narratives often portray them as outsiders

Why: primarily driven by British colonial "divide-and-rule" policies, the rise of competing Hindu-Muslim political identities in the late 19th century, and the traumatic 1947 Partition

Baul

Background:
Beliefs:

Themes in Baul Songs:

Guru

Indus Valley Civilization

dr knights slide said 2750 BCE (possibly older)

knott book says 2600-1800 BCE

One of the world’s earliest urban civilizations in present-day Pakistan and northwest India; known for planned cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa and advanced drainage systems.

Aryan Migration

estimated time of arrival of Aryans: 2000 - 1500 BCE

Indo-European-speaking peoples migrated into northwest India; composed the Vedas and shaped early Vedic religion and early varna system.

Epic Period

c. 500 BCE–200 CE.

Period when the Mahabharata and Ramayana were composed and compiled; development of dharma and classical Hindu thought.

Muslim Rule in India

1206–1857 CE.

Includes Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and Mughal Empire (1526–1857); major Islamic political rule in India.

British Rule in India

1757–1947 CE.

Began with British East India Company control; direct Crown rule from 1858; ended with independence.

Indian Independence and Partition

1947

India gained independence from Britain; partition created India and Pakistan.

Shruti

"That which is heard." Most sacred Hindu texts believed to be divinely revealed (includes Vedas and Upanishads).

Smriti

"That which is remembered." Traditional texts of human authorship (epics, sutras, puranas, law codes, etc.).

Vedas

Oldest Hindu scriptures (c. 1500–500 BCE); hymns, rituals, and prayers central to early Vedic religion.

Upanishads

Philosophical texts exploring Brahman, Atman, karma, samsara, and moksha.

Ramayana

Epic telling the story of Rama rescuing Sita from Ravana; teaches dharma and devotion.

• Ram as ideal kshatriya and ideal king

• Sita as ideal wife

Mahabharata

Massive epic about a dynastic war between cousins (Pandavas and Kauravas); contains the Bhagavad Gita.

Bhagavad Gita

700-verse dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna about duty (dharma), selfless action, devotion, and liberation.

Explains that there are many religious paths, many paths to liberation.

• Karma yoga

• Jnana yoga

• Bhakti yoga

Samsara

Cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

Karma

Law of cause and effect; actions determine future consequences.

Moksha

Liberation from samsara (cycle of rebirth).

Think of nirvana

Dharma

Moral duty; righteous living according to cosmic and social order.

Brahman

Ultimate, formless reality underlying everything.

Atman

The eternal individual soul; in many traditions identical with Brahman.

Vedanta

Philosophical system based on the Upanishads focusing on Brahman and Atman.