Key U.S. Political and Social Changes 1915-1945

Birth of a Nation

Who: D.W. Griffith/Woodrow Wilson

What: Racist film

When:* 1915 *

Where:* White House *

Why:** Helped inspire the second KKK and highlighted contradictions in Wilson's "democracy."

Selective Service Act

Who: US Government **

What:* Military conscription law *

When:* 1917 *

Where:* United States *

Why:** Exemplified the increase in federal state capacity and mobilization for World War I.

Committee on Public Information

Who:* George Creel/Woodrow Wilson *

What:* Propaganda agency *

When:* 1917 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Set the precedent for government shaping of a pro-war atmosphere and suppressing dissent.

Espionage Act

Who:* US Congress *

What:* Law criminalizing interference with war effort When: 1917 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Demonstrated the government's newly developed capacity for domestic repression and policing of loyalty.

World War I

Who:* Global powers/US *

What:* Total war *

When:* 1914-1918 *

Where:* Europe/Global *

Why:** Increased state capacity, mobilized nationalism, and created political space for mass activism.

Sedition Act

Who:* US Congress *

What:* Extension of Espionage Act *

When:* 1918 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Further restricted free speech by criminalizing "disloyal" language about the government or military.

The Palmer Raids

Who:* A. Mitchell Palmer *

What:* Mass arrests of suspected radicals *

When:* 1919-1920 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Part of the post-WWI atmosphere of repression and fear of transnational revolutionary sentiments.

Alice Paul

Who:* Suffrage leader *

What:* Militant activist *

When:* 1910-1920s *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Increased the stakes and tactics of the transnational women's suffrage movement leading to the 19th Amendment.

19th Amendment

Who:* US Women/Congress *

What:* Constitutional amendment *

When:* 1920 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Guaranteed women the right to vote, marking a victory for political liberty and effective democracy.

Treaty of Versailles

Who:* Allied Powers/Germany *

What:* WWI peace treaty *

When:* 1919 *

Where:* France *

Why:** Placed harsh economic penalties on Germany; its failures helped enable the rise of World War II.

Immigration Act of 1917

Who:* US Congress *

What:* Restrictive immigration law *

When:* 1917 *

Where:* US borders *

Why:** Introduced literacy tests and established the "Asiatic Barred Zone," increasing state control over borders.

Emergency Immigration Act of 1921

Who:* US Congress *

What:* Temporary quota system *

When:* 1921 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Created the first numerical limits on immigration based on existing foreign-born populations.

Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act)

Who:* US Congress *

What:* Permanent quota law *

When:* 1924 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Functioned as "mass racial engineering" by using biased census data to restrict "undesirable" nationalities.

Gold Standard

Who:* US Treasury *

What:* Monetary system *

When:* Re-introduced 1920 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Linked currency to gold, a policy later criticized for aggravating the deflation of the Great Depression.

Black Tuesday

Who:* Investors/Wall Street *

What:* Stock market crash *

When:* October 29, 1929 *

Where:* New York City *

Why:** The symbolic beginning of the Great Depression and the collapse of the 1920s economic order.

Great Depression

Who:* US Population *

What:* Global economic collapse *

When:* 1929-1941 *

Where:* USA/Global *

Why:** Led to the creation of the New Deal and the learning that the state can alleviate recessions.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

Who:* Herbert Hoover/FDR *

What:* Federal lending agency *

When:* Est. 1932 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Provided emergency loans to banks and later funded New Deal infrastructure like Kaiser Steel.

Bonus March / Bonus Army

Who:* Walter Waters/WWI Veterans *

What:* Protest march *

When:* 1932 *

Where:* Washington D.C. *

Why:** Veterans demanded early payment of bonuses, dramatizing the economic crisis and Herbert Hoover's perceived coldness.

First New Deal

Who:* FDR *

What:* Initial relief/recovery programs *

When:* 1933-1934 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Focused on stopping deflation and providing a basis for economic recovery through immediate relief.

Emergency Banking Act

Who:* FDR/Congress *

What:* Bank stabilization law *

When:* 1933 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Reopened solvent banks and restored public confidence in the financial system after a national holiday.

Securities Exchange Act

Who:* FDR/Congress *

What:* Regulatory law *

When:* 1934 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Created the SEC to regulate Wall Street, prevent insider trading, and stabilize financial markets.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

Who:* Unemployed young men *

What:* Work relief program *

When:* 1933-1942 *

Where:* US Forests/Parks *

Why:** Employed 3 million people to build infrastructure, showing the state's role as a direct employer.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

Who:* Harry Hopkins/FDR *

What:* Relief grant program *

When:* 1933 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Distributed $500 million to states for direct relief, expanding federal responsibility for the poor.

Public Works Administration (PWA)

Who:* Harold Ickes/FDR *

What:* Large-scale construction agency *

When:* 1933 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Spent $3.3 billion on major infrastructure like NYC's Triborough Bridge to stimulate the economy.

Civil Works Administration (CWA)

Who:* FDR *

What:* Short-term jobs program *

When:* 1933â€"1934 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Directly hired workers for public projects, bypassing state grants to address immediate unemployment.

National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)

Who:* FDR/Congress *

What:* Industrial planning law *

When:* 1933 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Authorized the PWA and established Section 7a, which first recognized workers' right to organize.

Second New Deal

Who:* FDR/Congress *

What:* Social reform legislation *

When:* 1935â€"1938 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Shifted focus to long-term economic security and the construction of a nascent social welfare state.

Strike Wave of 1933-34

Who:* Industrial workers *

What:* Mass labor unrest *

When:* 1933-1934 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Pushed the New Deal to become more confrontational toward business and led to the Wagner Act.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

Who:* Harry Hopkins/FDR *

What:* Massive jobs program *

When:* 1935-1943 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Employed millions, including artists, and later helped organize the logistical side of Japanese internment.

Social Security Act

Who:* FDR/Congress *

What:* Social insurance law *

When:* 1935 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Created unemployment insurance and old-age pensions, though it excluded farm and domestic workers.

National Labor Relations / Wagner Act

Who:* Robert Wagner/FDR *

What:* Labor rights law *

When:* 1935 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Institutionalized collective bargaining and "industrial democracy," providing a "social warrant" for union organizing.

Fair Labor Standards Act

Who:* FDR/Congress *

What:* Labor standards law *

When:* 1938 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Established the federal minimum wage, maximum hours, and banned child labor in interstate commerce.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Who:* Skilled workers *

What:* Craft-based labor federation *

When:* 1930s (era) *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Criticized by John L. Lewis for failing to organize mass-production industrial workers.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

Who:* "Wobblies" *

What:* Radical industrial union *

When:* Est. 1905 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Advocated for "one big union" and organizing industrially to create a new society within the old shell.

AFL Convention of 1935

Who:* John L. Lewis/Union leaders *

What:* Labor meeting *

When:* 1935 *

Where:* Atlantic City *

Why:** Resulted in a split within the AFL that led to the creation of the more militant CIO.

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

Who:* John L. Lewis *

What:* Industrial labor federation *

When:* Est. 1935 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Successfully organized mass-production industries (steel, auto) and promoted "industrial democracy."

The Four Freedoms

Who:* FDR *

What:* Wartime goals speech *

When:* January 1941 *

Where:* Washington D.C. *

Why:** Provided the language of national unity and moral purpose (Speech, Worship, Want, Fear) for WWII.

Lend Lease Act

Who:* FDR/Allies *

What:* Military aid program *

When:* 1941 *

Where:* USA/Global *

Why:** Made the US the "arsenal of democracy" by providing arms to Britain and the USSR on credit.

Pearl Harbor

Who:* Japan/USA *

What:* Surprise military attack *

When:* December 7, 1941 *

Where:* Hawaii *

Why:** Ended American isolationism and unified the nation for total mobilization in World War II.

Lanham Act

Who:* War workers *

What:* Childcare funding law *

When:* 1941-1945 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Established 3,000 childcare centers to support women in the war economy; ended immediately after surrender.

Office of War Information (OWI)

Who:* US Government *

What:* War propaganda agency *

When:* 1942 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Used WWI-style tactics to elicit public support for the war effort and promote the Four Freedoms.

World War II

Who:* Axis vs. Allies *

What:* Global conflict *

When:* 1939-1945 (US entry 1941) *

Where:* Global *

Why:** Ended the Great Depression and established the US as the world's dominant military and economic power.

Executive Order 9066

Who:* FDR *

What:* Internment order *

When:* February 1942 *

Where:* West Coast USA *

Why:** Authorized the imprisonment of 110,000 Japanese-Americans, a major contradiction to the rhetoric of freedom.

Double V Campaign

Who:* Black activists/Pittsburgh Courier *

What:* Civil rights slogan *

When:* 1942 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Demanded victory against fascism abroad and victory against racism at home.

March on Washington Movement (MOWM)

Who:* A. Philip Randolph *

What:* Planned mass protest *

When:* 1941 *

Where:* Washington D.C. *

Why:** Forced FDR to address racial discrimination in war industries via Executive Order 8802.

Executive Order 8802

Who:* FDR *

What:* Anti-discrimination order *

When:* 1941 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Banned discrimination in defense industries and established the FEPC, a "fraught victory" for civil rights.

Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)

Who:** FDR

What:* Oversight committee *

When:* 1941 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Investigated discrimination in the war industry, though it lacked strong enforcement power to maintain production.

Second Bill of Rights

Who:* FDR *

What:* Economic Bill of Rights proposal *

When:* 1944 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Proposed rights to jobs, housing, and medical care as the new foundation for postwar security.

GI Bill

Who:* Congress/Veterans *

What:* Servicemen's Readjustment Act *

When:* June 1944 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Provided vast social benefits to veterans but codified inequality through exclusions of Black and gay soldiers.

Full Employment Bill

Who:* Liberals/Labor *

What:* Proposed jobs law *

When:* 1945 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Aimed to guarantee the right to a job but was blocked by an alliance of Southern Democrats and Republicans.

Employment Act

Who:* US Congress *

What:* Watered-down labor law *

When:* 1946 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Stated maximum employment as a goal but provided no specific means to achieve it, unlike the 1945 bill.

Bretton Woods Monetary Conference

Who:* 44 Allied Nations *

What:* Economic summit *

When:* July 1944 *

Where:* New Hampshire *

Why:** Established the World Bank and the gold standard at $\$35$ an ounce to ensure postwar currency stability.

United Nations

Who:* Global Powers *

What:* International organization *

When:* Est. 1945 *

Where:* Global/New York *

Why:** Created to address problems that enabled WWII and facilitate international cooperation on security and human rights.

Declaration of Human Rights

Who:* UN/Eleanor Roosevelt *

What:* Global rights document *

When:* 1948 *

Where:* Paris *

Why:** Established universal standards, though the US refused to ratify sections on economic and social rights.

Department of Defense

Who:* US Government *

What:* Consolidated military agency *

When:* 1947 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Part of the creation of a permanent "war infrastructure" as the US entered the Cold War.

Truman Doctrine

Who:* Harry Truman *

What:* Foreign policy of containment *

When:* 1947 *

Where:* USA/Global *

Why:** Committed the US to supporting "free peoples" against communist threats, launching the Cold War.

Marshall Plan

Who:* George Marshall *

What:* European recovery program *

When:* 1948 *

Where:* Western Europe *

Why:** Rebuilt war-torn Europe to create stable markets for US goods and prevent the spread of communism.

NATO

Who:* US/Western Allies *

What:* Military alliance *

When:* 1949 *

Where:* North Atlantic *

Why:** Established a collective defense pact against the Soviet Union, further militarizing the Cold War.

Cold War

Who:* USA vs. USSR *

What:* Ideological conflict *

When:* 1947-1991 *

Where:* Global *

Why:** Dominated global politics through a struggle between capitalist and communist systems and a climate of fear.

NSC-68

Who:* US Security Council *

What:* Secret strategy memo *

When:* 1950 *

Where:* USA *

Why:** Called for massive military buildup to achieve "superior aggregate military strength" to contain the USSR.