aqa as level tsarist and communist russia

all russia year 12 content

what is the definition of autocracy?

autocracy is a system of government in which one person possesses absolute power and authority over the state, often without legal and constitutional limitations

what was the orthodox church?

the orthodox church was a product of the split in the christian church in the eleventh century. orthodoxy was key within russia, and the tsar was seen as head of the orthodox church

what were the problems with governing russia in 1855?

there were many different ethnic groups within the empire, each with their own beliefs

less than half of the total population of 69 million were russian

what was the tsars army like?

russia had the largest army of 1.5 million conscripted serfs, who were each forced into service for 25 years, with 15 in the reserves

what were the drawbacks of the army in 1855?

absorbed around 45% of annual government spending

discipline was harsh for lower ranks

most serfs were inexperienced

what was a police state?

a state in which the activities of the people are closely monitored and controlled for political reasons

how did the french revolution impact russia?

french liberal ideas proved a demand for greater political freedom in europe

why was russia considered “backwards?”

• although a vast empire, much was inhabitable

• poor climate made it difficult to farm

• commitment to a serf-based economy

• reliance on agriculture rather than imports

what were serfs?

serfs were russian men, women and children who were classed as property of their owners rather than citizens of the state.

they could be brought or sold, were subject to beatings and liable for conscription into the army

how was russia divided?

• land owning elite (productive classes)

• serf majority (non productive)

what were the statistics of the 1897 consensus?

• 55.6% russians

• 22.4% ukranians

• 7.9% polish

• 5% jewish

what was a slavophile?

believed that russia should develop based on its own unique history and culture

what was a westerner?

believed russia’s progress depended on adopting western european technology, education and liberal governance

what happened in the crimean war?

allied forces landed in crimea in attempt to capture the russian naval base of sevastapol

what was the impact of the crimean war?

• provided the “wake-up call” that russia needed to reform the military

• resulted in a new tsar with a new generation of liberal minded nobles

who began their rule in 1855?

alexander II

what happened in the year 1861?

• emancipation edict freed russia’s 23 million serfs

• emancipation aimed to strengthen social and political stability

what were alexander II’s motives for reform?

• party of st petersburg progress (liberal nobles)

• nikolai milyutin (favoured reform and drafted edict)

• dmitry milyutin (analysed failures of crimea)

• reform to “strengthen the state and restore dignity”

• freeing peasants would provide them with a greater incentive to work

what were the results of emancipation?

• redemption payments to former lords for 49 years at 6%

• peasants had to remain within commune until paid

• 15% of peasants still remained obligated to their lords until 1881

• only 50% of peasantry was capable of producing a surplus in 1878

• landowners lost influence

what was the mir responsible for?

• distributing allotments

• controlling farming

• collecting & paying taxes

what were the military reforms?

• 1874-75

• conscription made compulsory for all classes from the age of 21, but service was reduced to 15 years

• punishments made less severe

• modern weaponry introduced

• military colleges set up to provide improved training

• mass army education campaigns 1870s-90s

what were the local government reforms?

• 1864-1870

• zemstva (electoral council) to replace rights & obligations of serf owning gentry

• zemstva given power to improve local services e.g. roads

• zemstva did NOT have control over state & local taxes

what were the judiciary reforms?

• 1864

• accused was innocent until proven guilty

• criminal cases heard before barristers and jury, judges appointed by tsar

• local justices of peace elected every 3 years

• courts open to public

what were the education reforms?

• 1863-64

• alexander golovnin (minister of education 1862-7)

• universities could govern themselves

• schooling responsibilities given to zemstva

• schools declared ‘open to all’

• primary and secondary education extended

what were the censorship reforms?

• 1858-70

• restrictions on publishers reduced

• foreign publications permitted with approval

• no. of books grew from 1020 in 1855 to 10,691 in 1894

what was the continuity from alexander II reforms?

• agriculture was still dominant

• noble class retained former dominance

• peasantry changed little as illiteracy, religion, superstition and heavy taxation worked against progress

what was the change in russia as a result of alexander II’s reforms?

• emancipation marked a willingness for government to take a interest in economic matters

• changed patterns of land ownership - mobile labour force

• social change perpetuated by reforms

what happened in 1866?

• karakazov’s attempted assasination on alexander II

• this resulted in a more repressive policy being adopted

what appointments did alexander II make in 1866?

• dmitry tolstoy as minister of education

• aleksandr timashev as minister of internal affairs

• pyotr shuvalov as head of third section

• konstantin pahlen as minister of justice

what was dmitry tolstoy’s impact on education?

• reduced zemstva’s powers over education

• more liberal courses such as literature were replaced with maths in universities

• state teacher training colleges were set up to improve tsarist control rather than improve education

what was pytor shuvalov’s impact on the police?

• strengthened the police & encouraged the third section

• stepped up persecution of ethnic and religious minorities

• pahlen made sure system made an example of those accused of political agitation

• show trials were an attempt of deterring others from revolutionary action

what was the trial of 193?

• a sympathetic jury aquitted 153/193 of defendants accused of revolutionary activity

• rest were given lighter sentences

what was the loris melikov constitution?

• a report produced by melikov in response to zemstva demands

• reccomended inclusion of elected representitves of the nobility, of the zemstva & of town governments in drafting state decrees

• report accepted by tsar on 13th march 1881

what happened at tsar alexander II’s assasination?

• 13th march 1881

• alexander was travelling to winter palace when the people’s will positioned themselves along route with bombs

• first two bombs missed, tsar checked on civillian and then got hit

• dmitry karakazov

what was the impact of tsar alexander II’s assasination?

• triggered intense reactionary policies

• rejection of proposed changes

• ended russia’s era of liberal reforms

what was the manifesto on unshakeable autocracy?

• issued by alexander III on 29th april 1881

• rejected liberal reforms and reinforced autocratic power

• suggested a period of stagnation

who was konstantin pobedonostev?

• chosen tutor to alexander

• nicknamed “the black tsar”

• spoke out about absolutism, nationalism & anti-semitism

what were the changes in local government under alexander III?

• land captains (1889) had the power to override zemstvo and were responsible for law enforcement and government in the countryside

• 1890 - zemstva under central government control

• june 1892 - electorate reduced to owners of property above a certain value

what were the changes in policing under alexander III?

• okhrana intercepted and read mail, checked on factories, universities, army and state

• no. of police increased

• new branches of investigation

• police could arrest those they thought likely to commit crimes

what were the changes in the judicial system under alexander III?

• 1885 - minister of justice to exercise greater control

• 1887 - ministry could hold closed court sessions

• education needed by judges raised

what were the changes in education under alexander III?

• overseen by delyanov - made appointments of proffessors etc based on religious, moral and patriotic grounds rather than education

• closed universities for women & prevented students gathering in groups more than 5

• lower class children restricted to primary education

• 21% of population literate by 1897

what were the changes in censorship during alexander III’s rule?

• tolstoy established government comittee in 1882

• newspapers closed & life ban placed on publishers and editors

• all literary publications had to be officially approved

what was the overall impact on alexander III’s counter reforms?

• not all of his father’s reforms disappeared

• may 1881 - redemption fees reduced

• may 1885 - poll tax abolished

what was the supposed “problem” posed by ethnic minorites?

• over 100 different ethnic groups within russia

• posed a threat to autocracy and national ideology

• russia wanted to assert national superiority

what were alexander III’s views on ethnic minorites?

• more concerned with control rather than racial superiority

• did not engage in systematic persecution of minorities

• prohibition of ukrainian language in publications & performances in 1876

what was russification like under alexander III?

• finnish parliament reorganised in 1892 to weaken influence

• use of russian language demanded

• independent postal service abolished

• polish national bank closed in 1885

• in polish schools all teachings of the polish language had to be in russian

• 1885-9, baltic germans measured introduced to inforce russian in schools, offices etc.

• 1884 - five theatres in ukranian provinces closed

• adherence to orthodox faith encouraged

• 1883 - non orthodox members could not wear religious dress or spread propaganda

what were the results of russification?

• june 1888: 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61/92 provinces

• 43 disturbances in 9/12 central provinces

• national groups petitioned tsar for more liberties

• secret publication of local language books

• supporters believed they were acting for the greater good of russia

what was the impact of anti-semitism?

• pale of settlement: region in south & west of russia - jewish people concerntrated into

• pobedonostev: “one third should emigrate, one third should die, one third should assimilate”

• jews left the country - forceably expelled from kiev in 1866

• 1891-2, 10,000 jewish arisans expelled from moscow

what were the jewish pogroms?

• 1881-1884

• jewish concerntration in the pale made them targets for pogroms

• april 1881, yelizavetgrad

• around 16 major cities affected, with jewish property burnt, shops destroyed & incidents of r'@pe and murder

• laws condemed jews to living in ghettos

what were some of the anti-semetic legislations?

• 1887: jews who have graduated university outside of russia cannot reside outside pale for virtue of qualifications

• 1887: number of jewish people admitted to school is regulated, e.g. 10% in pale, 5% outside

• 1893: illegal for jews to adopt a christian name

• 1892: jews banned from local elections and prohibited from election into duma’s.