aqa as level tsarist and communist russia

all russia year 12 content

what is the definition of autocracy?

autocracy is a system of government in which one person possesses absolute power and authority over the state, often without legal and constitutional limitations

what was the orthodox church?

the orthodox church was a product of the split in the christian church in the eleventh century. orthodoxy was key within russia, and the tsar was seen as head of the orthodox church

what were the problems with governing russia in 1855?

there were many different ethnic groups within the empire, each with their own beliefs

less than half of the total population of 69 million were russian

what was the tsars army like?

russia had the largest army of 1.5 million conscripted serfs, who were each forced into service for 25 years, with 15 in the reserves

what were the drawbacks of the army in 1855?

absorbed around 45% of annual government spending

discipline was harsh for lower ranks

most serfs were inexperienced

what was a police state?

a state in which the activities of the people are closely monitored and controlled for political reasons

how did the french revolution impact russia?

french liberal ideas proved a demand for greater political freedom in europe

why was russia considered “backwards?”

• although a vast empire, much was inhabitable

• poor climate made it difficult to farm

• commitment to a serf-based economy

• reliance on agriculture rather than imports

what were serfs?

serfs were russian men, women and children who were classed as property of their owners rather than citizens of the state.

they could be brought or sold, were subject to beatings and liable for conscription into the army

how was russia divided?

• land owning elite (productive classes)

• serf majority (non productive)

what were the statistics of the 1897 consensus?

• 55.6% russians

• 22.4% ukranians

• 7.9% polish

• 5% jewish

what was a slavophile?

believed that russia should develop based on its own unique history and culture

what was a westerner?

believed russia’s progress depended on adopting western european technology, education and liberal governance

what happened in the crimean war?

allied forces landed in crimea in attempt to capture the russian naval base of sevastapol

what was the impact of the crimean war?

• provided the “wake-up call” that russia needed to reform the military

• resulted in a new tsar with a new generation of liberal minded nobles

who began their rule in 1855?

alexander II

what happened in the year 1861?

• emancipation edict freed russia’s 23 million serfs

• emancipation aimed to strengthen social and political stability

what were alexander II’s motives for reform?

• party of st petersburg progress (liberal nobles)

• nikolai milyutin (favoured reform and drafted edict)

• dmitry milyutin (analysed failures of crimea)

• reform to “strengthen the state and restore dignity”

• freeing peasants would provide them with a greater incentive to work

what were the results of emancipation?

• redemption payments to former lords for 49 years at 6%

• peasants had to remain within commune until paid

• 15% of peasants still remained obligated to their lords until 1881

• only 50% of peasantry was capable of producing a surplus in 1878

• landowners lost influence

what was the mir responsible for?

• distributing allotments

• controlling farming

• collecting & paying taxes

what were the military reforms?

• 1874-75

• conscription made compulsory for all classes from the age of 21, but service was reduced to 15 years

• punishments made less severe

• modern weaponry introduced

• military colleges set up to provide improved training

• mass army education campaigns 1870s-90s

what were the local government reforms?

• 1864-1870

• zemstva (electoral council) to replace rights & obligations of serf owning gentry

• zemstva given power to improve local services e.g. roads

• zemstva did NOT have control over state & local taxes

what were the judiciary reforms?

• 1864

• accused was innocent until proven guilty

• criminal cases heard before barristers and jury, judges appointed by tsar

• local justices of peace elected every 3 years

• courts open to public

what were the education reforms?

• 1863-64

• alexander golovnin (minister of education 1862-7)

• universities could govern themselves

• schooling responsibilities given to zemstva

• schools declared ‘open to all’

• primary and secondary education extended

what were the censorship reforms?

• 1858-70

• restrictions on publishers reduced

• foreign publications permitted with approval

• no. of books grew from 1020 in 1855 to 10,691 in 1894

what was the continuity from alexander II reforms?

• agriculture was still dominant

• noble class retained former dominance

• peasantry changed little as illiteracy, religion, superstition and heavy taxation worked against progress

what was the change in russia as a result of alexander II’s reforms?

• emancipation marked a willingness for government to take a interest in economic matters

• changed patterns of land ownership - mobile labour force

• social change perpetuated by reforms

what happened in 1866?

• karakazov’s attempted assasination on alexander II

• this resulted in a more repressive policy being adopted

what appointments did alexander II make in 1866?

• dmitry tolstoy as minister of education

• aleksandr timashev as minister of internal affairs

• pyotr shuvalov as head of third section

• konstantin pahlen as minister of justice

what was dmitry tolstoy’s impact on education?

• reduced zemstva’s powers over education

• more liberal courses such as literature were replaced with maths in universities

• state teacher training colleges were set up to improve tsarist control rather than improve education

what was pytor shuvalov’s impact on the police?

• strengthened the police & encouraged the third section

• stepped up persecution of ethnic and religious minorities

• pahlen made sure system made an example of those accused of political agitation

• show trials were an attempt of deterring others from revolutionary action

what was the trial of 193?

• a sympathetic jury aquitted 153/193 of defendants accused of revolutionary activity

• rest were given lighter sentences

what was the loris melikov constitution?

• a report produced by melikov in response to zemstva demands

• reccomended inclusion of elected representitves of the nobility, of the zemstva & of town governments in drafting state decrees

• report accepted by tsar on 13th march 1881

what happened at tsar alexander II’s assasination?

• 13th march 1881

• alexander was travelling to winter palace when the people’s will positioned themselves along route with bombs

• first two bombs missed, tsar checked on civillian and then got hit

• dmitry karakazov

what was the impact of tsar alexander II’s assasination?

• triggered intense reactionary policies

• rejection of proposed changes

• ended russia’s era of liberal reforms

what was the manifesto on unshakeable autocracy?

• issued by alexander III on 29th april 1881

• rejected liberal reforms and reinforced autocratic power

• suggested a period of stagnation

who was konstantin pobedonostev?

• chosen tutor to alexander

• nicknamed “the black tsar”

• spoke out about absolutism, nationalism & anti-semitism

what were the changes in local government under alexander III?

• land captains (1889) had the power to override zemstvo and were responsible for law enforcement and government in the countryside

• 1890 - zemstva under central government control

• june 1892 - electorate reduced to owners of property above a certain value

what were the changes in policing under alexander III?

• okhrana intercepted and read mail, checked on factories, universities, army and state

• no. of police increased

• new branches of investigation

• police could arrest those they thought likely to commit crimes

what were the changes in the judicial system under alexander III?

• 1885 - minister of justice to exercise greater control

• 1887 - ministry could hold closed court sessions

• education needed by judges raised

what were the changes in education under alexander III?

• overseen by delyanov - made appointments of proffessors etc based on religious, moral and patriotic grounds rather than education

• closed universities for women & prevented students gathering in groups more than 5

• lower class children restricted to primary education

• 21% of population literate by 1897

what were the changes in censorship during alexander III’s rule?

• tolstoy established government comittee in 1882

• newspapers closed & life ban placed on publishers and editors

• all literary publications had to be officially approved

what was the overall impact on alexander III’s counter reforms?

• not all of his father’s reforms disappeared

• may 1881 - redemption fees reduced

• may 1885 - poll tax abolished

what was the supposed “problem” posed by ethnic minorites?

• over 100 different ethnic groups within russia

• posed a threat to autocracy and national ideology

• russia wanted to assert national superiority

what were alexander III’s views on ethnic minorites?

• more concerned with control rather than racial superiority

• did not engage in systematic persecution of minorities

• prohibition of ukrainian language in publications & performances in 1876

what was russification like under alexander III?

• finnish parliament reorganised in 1892 to weaken influence

• use of russian language demanded

• independent postal service abolished

• polish national bank closed in 1885

• in polish schools all teachings of the polish language had to be in russian

• 1885-9, baltic germans measured introduced to inforce russian in schools, offices etc.

• 1884 - five theatres in ukranian provinces closed

• adherence to orthodox faith encouraged

• 1883 - non orthodox members could not wear religious dress or spread propaganda

what were the results of russification?

• june 1888: 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61/92 provinces

• 43 disturbances in 9/12 central provinces

• national groups petitioned tsar for more liberties

• secret publication of local language books

• supporters believed they were acting for the greater good of russia

what was the impact of anti-semitism?

• pale of settlement: region in south & west of russia - jewish people concerntrated into

• pobedonostev: “one third should emigrate, one third should die, one third should assimilate”

• jews left the country - forceably expelled from kiev in 1866

• 1891-2, 10,000 jewish arisans expelled from moscow

what were the jewish pogroms?

• 1881-1884

• jewish concerntration in the pale made them targets for pogroms

• april 1881, yelizavetgrad

• around 16 major cities affected, with jewish property burnt, shops destroyed & incidents of r'@pe and murder

• laws condemed jews to living in ghettos

what were some of the anti-semetic legislations?

• 1887: jews who have graduated university outside of russia cannot reside outside pale for virtue of qualifications

• 1887: number of jewish people admitted to school is regulated, e.g. 10% in pale, 5% outside

• 1893: illegal for jews to adopt a christian name

• 1892: jews banned from local elections and prohibited from election into duma’s.

the emergence of new ideas and opposition

• both hope and disappointment stimulated by alexander II’s reforms brought opposition to the regime

• creation of zemstva encouraged educated intellectuals to challenge tsarist policies

• more repressive atmosphere continued through alexander III’s reign

moderate liberal opposition

• size and influence of liberal intelligensia grew with reforms and economic changes

• liberal intellectuals possessed wealth, time and interest to reflect on political matters

how did the zemstva increase liberal opposition?

• local decision making encouraged members to think more nationally

• members hope was to reform autocracy so tsar would rule in conjunction with his subjects

• st petersburg zemstvo demanded a central body to coordinate regional councils but tsar refused

what happened in june 1862?

• a series of fires in st petersburg destroyed 2000 shops

• young russia held responsible and commission was set up to investigate

• 1863 - the organisation was set up at moscow university which called for reform

who was nikolai chernyshevsky?

• author of a radical journal “the contemporary” and “what is to be done”

• wrote in 1862 when confined to peter and paul fortress

• writings suggested peasants needed to be leaders of revolutionary change

who was aleksandr herzen?

• editor of radical journal “the bell” which was produced abroad and smuggled into russia illegally

• advocated for a peasant based social structure

• 1869 “go to the people”

who was mikhail bakunin?

• both an anarchist & a socialist

• put forward that private ownership of land should be replaced with collective and income should be based on hours worked

• translated the communist manifesto

what were karl marx's' theories?

• idea that all history was composed of class struggles

• predicted a struggle between working class proletariat and factory owning bourgeoisie

what was the catcheism of a revolutionary?

• written by bakunin and nechaev who had illegally fled to russia after calling of st petersburg students to assasinate the tsar

• smuggled into russia

what was the tchaicovsky circle?

• set up in 1868-69

• primarily a literary society which organised the printing, publishing and distribution of revolutionary literature

• no more than 100 people

• 1872 organising workers to send to peasants in countryside

who were the narodinks (populists)?

• 1874 pytor lavrov encouraged 2000 young men and women from nobility and intelligensia to travel to countryside to perusade peasantry that the future of russia relied on development of peasant commune

• some tried dressing and talking like peasants

• around 1600 arrested,

• second attempt 1876, third 1877-78

who were the “land and liberty”

• set up in 1877 and continued populist tradition

• members sought to work in peasant communes

• head of third section memenzstev assasinated 1878

• split in 1879

what was the black repartition?

• organised from st petersburg by georgi plekhanov

• wanted to share or partition black soil provinces across russia

• worked peacefully amongst peasantry

• weakened by arrests in 1880-1

what was the peoples will?

• led by aleksandr mikhailov who successfully planted a spy in the third section

• advocated violent methods and undermining the government by assasinations

• karakazov managed to assasinate tsar alexander II in march 1881

what was the tsarist reaction to radical opposition after 1881?

• security was stepped up and alexander III retired to the castle of gatchina

• end of populist movement although some managed to meet in secret

• emancipation of labour group 1883 arranged for marxist tracks to be smuggled into russia

• plekhanov as the father of marxism

what were mikhail von reuterns reforms?

• minister of finance 1862-78

• treasury reformed, new arrangements for tax collection

• tax farming was abolished, new indirect taxation

• state banks established 1860, municipal banks 1862, savings bank 1869

• reduction of import duties 1863

• foreign investment encouraged

• joint stock companies encouraged safe investment

what were the results of von reuterns reforms?

• forced former tax farmers to look elsewhere for investment

• annual average growth rate of 6%

• oil extraction began in caspian sea port 1871

• despite improvements, russian economy remained relitivaely weak

• 1/3 of all government expenditure went to repayment of currency debts

• 66% of government revenue from indirect taxation

how did vyshnegradsky improve russia industrially?

• importive tarrif of 30% of raw materials was introduced - designed to boost home production and improve iron industry

• negotiated a loan from france in 1888

• between 1881-91, grain exports rose by 18%

what happened in the 1891-92 famine?

• affected 17/39 of russias main provinces

• early winter and long, hot & dry summer ruined crops

• over 350,000 people died of starvation and disease

what happened under sergei witte?

• totally committed in economic modernisation as a way to curb revolutionary activity

• believed in heavy taxation and forced exports to generate capital

• 1895 - 280 million roubles of foreign investment

• worlds fourth largest economy by 1897

what happened to the railways in russia?

• 1851 - a line linking st petersburg and moscow

• mid 1890s, 60% of the russian railway system was state owned

agriculture and the land issue

• high taxes, grain requisitions, redemption payments and traditional farming practices hampered agricultural change

• peasants land bank 1883 - facilitate land purchase although loans merely increased debts

• nobles land bank 1885

what benefit did the kulaks have on agricultural production?

• large increase in 1870s & 1880s

• kulaks responded positively to vyshnegradskys export drive

• 1891-2 famine revealed peasants had too little land to become prosperous

• russia - 45 “puds” grain, whereas uk 146

who were the landed elite?

• mostly of noble status

• after emanicpation, some sold landholdings to pay debts

• 1880, 1/5 university professors from nobility

• 1882, more than 700 nobles owned businesses

• most former serf owners retained previous wealth and status

who were the middle class?

• russias middle class began to grow as a result of expansion

• no more than half a million in 1897 consensus

• government contracts to build railways and state loans to set up factories provided opportuinities for enterprise

who were the urban working class?

• no more than 2% of the population

• common for peasants to move to town temporarily to work but to move back to their villages for the harvest

• by 1864, 1 in 3 inhabitants of st petersburg were peasants at birth

• 1882-90 - regulation of child labour, reduction in work hours and reduction of fines and insepectors to check up on conditions

• 33 peasantry strikes per year between 1886-1894

what was the position of the peasantry?

• at the top were the kulaks who brought up land maybe with loans from peasant land bank: they employed labour and brought the less fortunate grain to provide them with money for the winter

• the poorest peasants found their lives getting harsher as they turned into landless labourers, dependent on others

• 2/3 former serfs were unable to feed their household without falling into debt

what was the cultural influence of the orthodox church?

• 70% of the population subscribed

• russia was a “holy land” that had been chosen by god to save the world

• tsar possessed a “divine right” to rule

• church administration had been moved to holy synod therefore tsars position was more secular

who were the ‘black hundreds’

nationalist gangs who were devoted to the tsar, church and motherland, emerging from c1900 and supported by clergy, landowners and government officials; played a major role in crushing the 1905 revolution

why didn’t nicholas II’s reign begin well?

• may 1896, crowds gathered on khodynka field just outside moscow to celebrate nicholas II corination, attracted by promises of free food, drinks and gifts

• however, in the rush to see the new tsar, around 1400 men women and children were trampled to death, and more were badly injured

• ceremonies went ahead as if nothing had happened

give examples of how russian society became more politicised after the great famine

• failure of bureaucratic tsarist government had left zemstva and volunteers to provide necessary relief work

• greater mistrust of government competence

• firmer belief of ordinary members of society to play a role in the nations affairs

• 1901, squadron of cossaks charged into a crowd of students in st petersburg, killing 13 and resulting in 1500 students imprisoned in peter and paul fortress

what were the years of the red cockrel?

• between 1902-1907, multiple disturbances in rural communities, often resulting in arson

• referred to the leaping flames which resembled a roosters comb

what was happening in central russian provinces in the early 1900s?

• peasants were setting fire to landlords barns, destroying grain, seizing woodland and physically attacking landlords

• stolypin dealt with disturbances in a way which agrivated them further by flogging, exiled and shot - gallows used so often it became known as ‘stolypins necktie’

industrial strikes between 1894-1904

around 17,000 in 1894

around 90,000 in 1904

what did the okhrana chief do in 1900?

• sergei vasilevich zubatov

• began organising his own police-sponsored trade unions with the approval of the govenor general of moscow, grand duke sergei alexandrovich

• idea was to provide ‘official’ channels through which complaints could be heard in attempt to prevent workers from joining radical socialists

• expermiment lasted until 1903, where zubatov was exiled after groups involved in strikes in odessa

what happened in the russo-japanese war?

• plehve encouraged the tsar to respond to a japanese assault on port arthur in janurary 1904, suggesting it would be ‘ a short swift victorious war ‘ which would distract from the unrest at home

• however, russians had little idea of their enemy and the inadequacies of their own forces

• celebrations on streets when plehve assasinated in july 1904

what happened on bloody sunday (9th jan 1905)

• on 20th december, russian forces surrender to the japanese at port arthur, humiliation adding to the growing discontent

• on 3rd janruary 1903 strikes began starting at putilov iron works which soon involved around 150,000 workers

• father gapon, whose union many of the workers belonged to conducted a peaceful march to the tsars winter palace on 9th jan

• gapon wanted to present a petition to nicholas, demonstrating the workers loyalty but also requesting reform

• 12,000 troops used to break up demonstration

• tsars uncle grand duke sergei assasinated, only then did he agree to meet with workers