AP Psychology Unit 0

A collection of 65 vocabulary flashcards covering essential concepts from AP Psychology Unit 0.

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes.

Cognition

How our mind processes and retains information.

Behavior

Anything an organism does.

Mental Processes

The internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior.

Cognitive Philosophy

The study of mental processes that occur when we perceive, learn, communicate, and problem-solve.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological perspective that emphasizes innate good in everyone and focuses on free will and personal growth.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on how we process, encode, store, and retrieve information.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological perspective that focuses on how natural selection has promoted the survival of genes.

Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytical Perspective

A perspective that focuses on how unconscious drives and childhood traumas explain behavior.

Biological Perspective

A perspective that examines how the brain, body, and genes influence behavior and mental processes.

Social-Cultural Perspective

A psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological perspective that focuses on how we learn observable responses.

Eclectic Approach

A combination of psychological approaches to meet the needs of a specific client.

Reductionism

Explaining complex behaviors by breaking them down into more fundamental components.

Biopsychosocial Model

Combining biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints to explain behavior.

Diathesis Stress Model

A theory explaining how genetic predisposition to mental disorders can be triggered by environmental stressors.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to overestimate the predictability of an event after it has happened.

Overconfidence

A bias where people overestimate their own abilities, knowledge, and judgment.

Cultural Norms

Unwritten rules dictating acceptable behavior within a specific cultural group.

Peer Reviewers

Experts who evaluate scientific manuscripts submitted to academic journals.

Hypothesis

A precise, testable statement predicting the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable (hypothesis)

A prediction that can be disproven through observation or experimentation.

Operational Definitions

Carefully worded statements defining the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating a research study to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or group.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching and recording natural behavior without interference.

Sample

A subset of a target population used to draw inferences about the entire group.

Random Sampling

A method where every individual has an equal chance of being selected for a study.

Population

The whole group that researchers want to study and describe.

Convenience Sampling

Selects participants who are most readily available.

Representative Sample

A small group that accurately reflects the larger population's characteristics.

Generalizing

Applying learned responses to similar situations.

Structured Interview

A standardized survey where predetermined questions are asked in the same order.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to present oneself in a socially favorable light in research.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process producing an unrepresentative sample.

Correlation

The degree to which two variables move in relation to each other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.

Independent Variable

The factor being manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured in an experiment that changes when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding Variable

Other factors that could influence the results of a study.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables using dots.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, so does the other.

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Regression Towards The Mean

The tendency for extreme events to fall back towards the average.

Experiment

A research method that manipulates independent variables to observe effects.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the treatment for comparison.

Illusionary Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to minimize differences.

Placebo

A treatment that has no real therapeutic effect.

Placebo Effect

A change in behavior due to belief in the treatment.

Single-Blind Study

Participants are unaware of which treatment they are receiving.

Double-Blind Study

Both researchers and participants are unaware of treatment allocations.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations unintentionally influence study results.

Bimodal Distribution

A probability distribution with two distinct peaks.

Validity

The extent to which an experiment measures what it is supposed to.

Likert Scales

Rating scales used to measure attitudes in surveys.

Directionality Problem

Not knowing the cause and effect relationship between two variables.

Third Variable Problem

An unmeasured factor influencing both variables.

Quantitative Research Method

Collects and analyzes numerical data to identify patterns.

Qualitative Research Method

Gathers non-numerical data such as words and observations.

Informed Consent

Providing enough information for potential participants to make an informed decision.

Debriefing

Explaining the research and any deception to participants post-study.

Informed Assent

Minors' agreement to participate after an explanation in suitable terms.

Institutional Review Board (IRB Board)

A committee that reviews research proposals for ethical considerations.

Protection From Harm

Ensuring participants are not exposed to undue risk.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants' information private.

Deception

Misleading participants about study purposes only if necessary.

Mean

A measure of central tendency calculated by averaging scores.

Median

The middle score in a data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Percentile Rank

Indicates the percentage of scores at or below a particular score.

Skewed Distribution (+)

Most scores cluster low with a few high scores stretching to the right.

Skewed Distribution (-)

Most scores cluster high with a few low scores stretching to the left.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of data.

Meta-Analysis

A method that combines results of multiple studies to identify trends.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that a result is not due to chance.

Variation

How similar or diverse scores are in a data set.

Effect Sizes

A measure showing the strength of the relationship between variables.

Histogram

A bar graph that shows frequency distributions.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data that describes characteristics of groups.

Inferential Statistics

Data that allows one to generalize from sample data to a population.

Why is the distinction between random sampling and random assignment crucial in psychological research?

Random sampling ensures a representative sample from the population to allow for generalization, while random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between groups to establish cause and effect.

How does the biopsychosocial model provide a more comprehensive explanation than reductionism?

While reductionism breaks behavior down into small components (like genes), the biopsychosocial model integrates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis to explain complex human behavior.

What is the primary limitation of utilizing a case study to create broad psychological theories?

Case studies focus on unique individuals or small groups, making it difficult to generalize findings to the broader population as the subject may be an atypical example.

Why must a scientific hypothesis be falsifiable?

A hypothesis must be stated in a way that allows it to be disproven; if an idea cannot be tested and potentially shown to be false, it falls outside the realm of empirical science.

How do operational definitions facilitate the process of replication?

They provide precise, measurable descriptions of variables and procedures, allowing other researchers to repeat the study exactly to see if they achieve the same results (p < .05).

In what way does hindsight bias impede the scientific method?

It creates the illusion that an outcome was predictable all along ("I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon), which can lead researchers to undervalue the need for rigorous, proactive experimentation.

What are the ethical requirements for using deception in a research study?

Deception must be justified by the study's potential value, must not cause physical or emotional pain, and must be followed by a thorough debriefing.

How does a double-blind study protect the internal validity of an experiment?

By keeping both participants and researchers unaware of group assignments, it eliminates both the placebo effect (subject expectations) and experimenter bias (researcher expectations).

Explain the relationship between correlation and causation.

Correlation indicates that two variables are mathematically related ($r$), but it does not prove that one variable causes the other due to the third variable problem.

Under what data distribution conditions is the median preferred over the mean?

In a skewed distribution, the mean is pulled toward the outliers (extreme scores), whereas the median provides a more accurate measure of central tendency for the majority of the data.

Contrast naturalistic observation and laboratory experiments regarding researcher control.

Naturalistic observation offers high ecological validity but low control over variables; experiments provide high control over independent variables but may occur in artificial settings.

What is the role of peer reviewers in the advancement of psychological science?

Experts in the field anonymously evaluate the methodology, ethics, and originality of a study to ensure only high-quality research is published in academic journals.

How does the Institutional Review Board (IRB) protect human participants?

The IRB evaluates research proposals to ensure they minimize risk, secure informed consent, and guarantee participant confidentiality.

Why is a representative sample essential for the external validity of a study?

If the sample characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity) do not mirror the target population, the findings cannot be reliably applied to the real world.