Phil finalllllll

Ethics is the same as

morality

Ethical relativism

morality is relative to individuals, society, culture, so whatever a person/society believes to be morally right is morally right

Problems for ethical relativism for groups or society:

you cannot criticize another culture’s morality;

it moral reformers are always morally wrong;

a culture’s morality can never be incorrect;

since we belong to many groups, which group or culture’s moral rule do you follow?

Problems for morality being relative to individuals

everyone’s moral judgments are always correct (and that seems implausible)

Cultural relativism

a historical fact that societies have different moralities

Ethical absolutism

morality is not relative, so whatever a person/society believes is morally right may not be so

Problems for ethical absolutism:

determining which moral code is the one true moral code

Teleological (consequentialist) theories of morality:

the consequences of the action determine its morality (ethical egoism, utilitarianism)

A problem for all consequentialist theories is that

the consequences of actions often cannot be determined.

Deontological theories of morality (non-consequentialist):

the morality of actions is due to something other than its consequences (Kant’s categorical imperative, rights-based theories, divine command theory).

Ethical egoism

morally right actions are those that increase the self-interest of the individual

Psychological egoism is

the theory of psychology that holds that we only act for self-interested reasons.

Intrinsic goods

valuable for their own sake; an example is happiness

Extrinsic goods

valuable because they lead to other things we value; an example is money

Utilitarianism

know utility (human goods or values). a consequentialist ethical theory holding that the best action is one that maximizes overall happiness and reduces suffering

Morality for utilitarians is concerned with

utility of people, not just the individual.

Bentham thought utility is

pleasure

Mill thought utility is

happiness

Pleasure machine example shows that

we value more than pleasure

Know act-utilitarianism:

the action which increases utility for the most people is the right action.

Problem for act-util from notes

doctor-patient example, killing one healthy person to save 5 sick people

Rule-utilitarianism:

the rule that increases utility is the morally right rule

Know problem for rule-util from notes

slavery rule, where 5% of society is enslaved to increase happiness of other 95%

Kant’s ethical theory:

the only intrinsically good thing is a good will. If an action is wrong, it is always wrong.

Categorical imperative

what determines which action is morally right or wrong.

First formulation of Categorical imperative:

if when you will that all people do the action, and this does not prevent you from doing the action, then it is a morally right (if when you will that all people do the action, and this does prevent you from doing the action, then it is a morally wrong)

Second formulation of Categorical imperative:

“always treat people as an end in themselves, and not a means to an end”, which means we can’t use people for our ends (and therefore this is a rights-based theory of morality)

A problems for the second formulation of Categorical Imperative is that

it is hard to determine whether you are treating a person as an end in themselves, or as a means to an end.

Problems for Kantian ethics (from class notes) for both formulations:

a person must always tell the truth, even to the murderer who is looking for his victims, and that seems morally wrong. Thus, the consequences of actions are important for morality.

Divine command theory

morality comes from God’s commandments

Problems for Divine command theory

it provides a selfish reason for doing morally right actions;

determining which interpretation of a religious moral text is correct;

determining which religion is the correct religion.

Plato’s “Euthyphro” argument:

two options, either (1) God commands actions because they are morally right (problem: this makes God the messenger of morality, and not its foundation), or

(2) actions are morally right because God commands them (problems: this is a “might makes right” moral theory, which people reject; and this means God could command that murder is morally right).

Virtue Ethics

A virtue is an admirable human quality. Aristotle believed that a balanced life that avoids extremes is more likely to bring happiness.

Aristotle believed that

a balanced life that avoids extremes is more likely to bring happiness.