Part III: Discovery and Expansion: Europe during the 15th and 16th Centuries

Sir Thomas More

Who/What: English lawyer, humanist scholar, and statesman who served as Lord Chancellor under Henry VIII.

Date: 1478–1535

Context: A devout Catholic, More opposed Henry VIII’s break with the Roman Catholic Church and refused to recognize the king as head of the Church of England. He also refused to support Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn.

Connection to Lecture: Represents internal opposition to Henry’s religious policies and the consequences of resisting royal authority. His execution illustrates the extent of Henry’s power and the dangers of dissent during the English Reformation; later canonized as a Catholic saint.

Henry VIII

Who/What: King of England who initiated the English Reformation.

Date: Reigned 1509–1547

Context: Initially a devout Catholic, Henry sought an annulment from Catherine of Aragon due to lack of a male heir. When the Pope refused, he broke from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England.

Connection to Lecture: Central figure; his personal and political decisions drove the English Reformation. Transformed England’s religious structure, strengthened royal authority, and established a national church independent of Rome.

Act of Supremacy

Who/What: Law declaring Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Date: 1534

Context: Officially severed ties with the Roman Catholic Church and established royal control over religion in England.

Connection to Lecture: The key turning point in the English Reformation. Marked the creation of an independent national church and a major shift in religious authority.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

Who/What: Movement within the Catholic Church to reform internal corruption and respond to Protestantism.

Date: 16th–17th centuries

Context: Included efforts to improve discipline, clarify doctrine, and strengthen spiritual life through new religious orders and councils.

Connection to Lecture: Represents the Catholic response to challenges like Henry’s break with Rome. Revitalized the Catholic Church and expanded its global influence.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

Who/What: Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola.

Date: Founded 1530s, approved 1540

Context: Known for strict discipline, long training, education, and missionary work across Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Connection to Lecture: Central force in the Counter-Reformation. Helped combat Protestantism and spread Catholicism globally.

Francis Xavier

Who/What: Jesuit missionary and early member of the Society of Jesus.

Date: 1506–1552

Context: Traveled extensively in Asia, spreading Christianity in India, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

Connection to Lecture: Represents the global expansion of Catholicism during the Counter-Reformation. One of the most influential missionaries in Christian history.

Apollo 11

Who/What: The first manned spaceflight to land humans on the Moon, conducted by NASA as part of the U.S. space program; astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the lunar surface.

Date: July 20, 1969

Context: Occurred during the Cold War “Space Race” between the United States and the Soviet Union, showcasing technological superiority, advanced mathematics, and scientific innovation.

Connection to Lecture: Represents the long-term result of scientific developments that began in the Renaissance—especially the shift toward observation, mathematics, and astronomy (Kepler, Copernicus), ultimately leading to modern space exploration.

Vitruvian Man

Who/What: A detailed drawing showing ideal human body proportions based on geometric principles described by the Roman architect Vitruvius.

Date: c. 1490

Context: Demonstrates the belief that the human body reflects mathematical harmony and natural order.

Connection to Lecture: Symbolizes Renaissance interest in combining classical knowledge, science, and artistic precision.

Johannes Kepler

Who/What: Scientist who formulated the laws of planetary motion, proving that planets move in elliptical orbits.

Date: 1571–1630

Context: Combined mathematics with astronomical observation, using data from Tycho Brahe.

Connection to Lecture: Key figure in the transition from Renaissance thought to the Scientific Revolution.

Antonio de Montesinos

Who/What: A Spanish Dominican missionary who delivered one of the first public condemnations of Spanish mistreatment of Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Date: Sermon delivered December 21, 1511

Context: Preached in Santo Domingo, accusing Spanish colonists of living in mortal sin for exploiting and abusing Indigenous populations under systems like encomienda. His sermon drew on Christian teachings, especially moral accountability and justice.

Connection to Lecture: Marks the beginning of open moral criticism of empire and directly influenced later reformers like Bartolomé de las Casas.

Bartolomé de las Casas

Who/What: A Spanish priest and former encomendero who became the most prominent advocate for the rights and humane treatment of Indigenous peoples.

Date: 1474–1566 (conversion to reform in 1514)

Context: Initially participated in colonization but, after hearing Montesinos, renounced his encomienda and devoted his life to exposing abuses and influencing royal policy through writings and activism.

Connection to Lecture: Central figure in the moral debate over empire; argued Indigenous peoples were fully human and deserving of rights and protection.

Encomienda

Who/What: A system in which the Spanish crown granted colonists the right to extract labor and tribute from Indigenous populations.

Date: Early 1500s (after Spanish conquest of the Americas)

Context: Indigenous people were not legally slaves, but in practice were forced into harsh labor conditions, leading to widespread suffering and population decline.

Connection to Lecture: Central example of exploitation that sparked moral outrage and reform efforts by figures like Montesinos and Las Casas.

Requerimiento

Who/What: A legal document read to Indigenous peoples asserting Spanish authority and demanding submission and conversion to Christianity.

Date: Introduced in 1513

Context: Claimed that refusal to accept Spanish rule justified war, conquest, and enslavement; often read in Spanish to people who did not understand it.

Connection to Lecture: Illustrates how religion and law were used to justify conquest and legitimize colonial violence.

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda

Who/What: A Spanish humanist and philosopher who argued that Indigenous peoples were naturally inferior and could justly be conquered.

Date: 1494–1573

Context: Used Aristotle’s idea of “natural slaves” to justify Spanish domination and violence during the Valladolid Debate.

Connection to Lecture: Main intellectual opponent of Las Casas; represents the argument used to defend empire and inequality.