American self study chapters

The Articles of Confederation

= the first constitution of the U.S., adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781. It created a loose union of independent states with a weak central government that couldn’t tax, enforce laws, or regulate trade. This made it hard to solve national problems, so it was eventually replaced by the U.S. Constitution in 1789.

Popular sovereignty =

the idea that the power of government comes > the people. It means citizens have the right to vote and make decisions through elected representatives. This principle is a key foundation of democracy in the U.S.

Reserved powers =

powers that the U.S. Constitution does not give to the federal government and are instead kept by the states. These include things like running schools, holding elections, and issuing licenses. They are outlined in the 10th Amendment.

A filibuster =

a tactic used in the U.S. Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill by extending debate. Senators can speak for as long as they want unless 60 senators vote to end it (called cloture). It’s often used by the minority party to prevent legislation they oppose.

The winner-takes-all system =

used in most U.S. states during presidential elections. It means that the candidate who gets the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes, even if they win by just a small margin. This system can make some votes count more than others, especially in swing states.

A two-party region =

an area where two major political parties dominate elections and government. In the U.S., this usually means Democrats and Republicans are the main competitors, with other parties having little influence. Most regions in the U.S. fall under this system.

Citizens United

= refers to a 2010 U.S. Supreme Court decision in the case Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. The Court ruled that corporations, unions, and other organizations can spend unlimited money on political campaigns, as long as they do so independently and not directly to candidates. This decision was based on the First Amendment, which protects freedom of speech. It has led to a significant increase in outside spending in elections and sparked ongoing debate about money and influence in American politics.

Third parties =

political parties other than the two major ones: the Democratic and Republican parties. Examples include the Libertarian Party and the Green Party. While third parties rarely win major elections, they can influence national debates by raising issues the main parties might ignore. They often face challenges such as limited ballot access, lower media coverage, and the "winner- takes-all" electoral system, which makes it difficult for them to gain seats.

The Speaker of the House =

the leader of the U.S. House of Representatives, the lower chamber of Congress. This person is elected by the members of the House, usually from the majority party, and is second in line to the presidency after the Vice President. The Speaker sets the legislative agenda, manages House proceedings, and represents the House in official capacities. It's one of the most powerful positions in the U.S. government.

The Majority Leader =

a key figure in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate, representing the political party with the most seats. In the Senate, the Majority Leader is the most powerful member, responsible for setting the legislative agenda and guiding party strategy. In the House, the Majority Leader works closely with the Speaker to manage debates and schedule bills for discussion. This role is essential for organizing the party’s priorities and ensuring smooth legislative operations.

Presidential caucuses =

meetings held by political parties in some U.S. states where registered party members gather to discuss and vote for their preferred candidate for president. Unlike primaries, which are more like standard elections with secret ballots, caucuses involve open discussion and public voting, often lasting several hours. They are one of the first steps in the process of selecting a party’s nominee for president. Iowa is especially known for its influential early caucus.

The unitary executive theory =

a concept in U.S. constitutional law that argues the president has full control over the executive branch. Supporters believe that all executive power must be centralized in the president, with limited interference from Congress or the courts. This theory is often used to justify strong presidential authority over agencies and officials. Critics warn it can lead to excessive concentration of power and undermine checks and balances.

Reapportionment =

the process of redistributing the 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives among the 50 states based on population changes. It occurs every 10 years after the national census. States that gain population may receive more seats, while those that lose population may have seats taken away. This process affects political representation and can shift power between regions.

Judicial review =

the power of U.S. courts, especially the Supreme Court, to review laws and government actions to determine whether they are constitutional. This authority was established in the landmark 1803 case Marbury v. Madison. If a law is found to violate the Constitution, the court can strike it down. Judicial review is a key part of the system of checks and balances in the U.S. government.

Presidential debates =

organized public events where candidates running for president discuss their policies and answer questions in front of an audience and TV viewers. These debates usually happen during the general election season and are sponsored by the Commission on Presidential Debates. They give voters a chance to compare candidates directly and evaluate their positions on important issues. Presidential debates can significantly influence public opinion and election outcomes.

Campaign finance =

refers to the money raised and spent to support political candidates, parties, or causes during elections. This includes donations from individuals, political action committees (PACs), and other groups. Laws regulate how much money can be contributed and require disclosure to promote transparency and prevent corruption. Campaign finance plays a crucial role in shaping political competition and influence in the U.S.

Presidential appointments =

the president’s power to choose people to fill important government positions, such as cabinet members, federal judges, and ambassadors. Many of these appointments require approval, or “confirmation,” by the Senate. These appointments allow the president to shape the executive branch and influence the judicial system. The process helps balance presidential power with legislative oversight.

The presidential veto =

the power of the U.S. president to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing it from becoming law. When the president vetoes a bill, it is sent back to Congress with reasons for the rejection. Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and

Senate. The veto is an important tool for the president to check legislative power and influence lawmaking.

The "Necessary and Proper" Clause =

a part of Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution that gives Congress the power to make all laws needed to carry out its duties. It is sometimes called the "Elastic Clause" because it allows Congress to stretch its powers beyond those explicitly listed. This clause has been used to justify a wide range of federal laws and actions. It plays a key role in defining the balance of power between the federal government and the states.

The Electoral College =

the system the United States uses to officially elect the president and vice president =>

• America is not direct democracy -> no direct representation of people

• People do not decide who will become president but decided by this college

• Idea: consists of members of each state (representatives)

  • Number of House members depends on size of the state (the bigger, the more)

  • In senate everyone has same amount of representatives (2) to even out little states

• Example:

  • 19 electors who represent 17 members of house & 2 senators (… + 2)

  • If trump wins Pennsylvania by 51% -> he gets ALL 19 votes / NOT: 10 for Trump & 9 for Kamala

→ If you win the state by 1 vote -> you still get all votes in the electoral college

• Not same as popular vote (sometimes presidency can win w/o popular vote) => you just have to win big states

• Most people want to get rid of this system but it is very difficult to change constitution

Original jurisdiction =

the authority of a court to hear a case for the first time, rather than on appeal. In the U.S., the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in certain cases, like disputes between states or cases involving ambassadors. Most cases, however, start in lower courts and reach the Supreme Court through appeals. Original jurisdiction ensures some important cases are decided directly by the highest court.

Primary and caucus elections =

methods used by political parties in the U.S. to choose their candidates for president and other offices. Primaries are like standard elections where voters cast secret ballots for their preferred candidate. Caucuses are meetings where party members openly discuss and vote for candidates in person. Both help determine how many delegates each candidate gets for the party’s national convention.

Divided government =

occurs when different political parties control the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress. For example, the president might be a Democrat while the Senate is controlled by Republicans. This situation can lead to legislative gridlock, as parties may struggle to agree on laws and policies. Divided government reflects the system of checks and balances but can also slow down decision-making.

Delegated powers =

specific authorities granted by the U.S. Constitution to the federal government, especially Congress. These powers include things like regulating interstate commerce, declaring war, and coining money. Delegated powers limit the federal government to certain areas, leaving other powers to the states. They help define the scope of national versus state authority.

Concurrent powers =

powers shared by both the federal government and the state governments. Examples include the ability to tax, build roads, and create lower courts. Because both levels can exercise these powers, they often work together but sometimes face conflicts. Concurrent powers help balance authority in the U.S. federal system.

The Elastic Clause =

also known as the "Necessary and Proper Clause," is a part of the U.S. Constitution that gives Congress the flexibility to pass laws needed to carry out its expressed powers. It allows Congress to adapt and create laws that weren’t specifically listed but are essential to govern effectively. This clause has helped expand federal power over time. It’s called “elastic” because it lets the Constitution stretch to meet new challenges.

Grants-in-aid =

funds provided by the federal government to state or local governments to help pay for specific programs or projects. These grants often come with rules about how the money must be used, such as for education, transportation, or health care. Grants-in-aid help states carry out national priorities while allowing some local control. They are an important tool for federal-state cooperation.

The Full Faith and Credit Clause =

a part of the U.S. Constitution that requires states to respect and honor the public acts, records, and judicial decisions of other states. For example, a marriage or court ruling in one state must be recognized in all others. This clause helps maintain legal consistency and cooperation between states. It ensures that people’s rights and legal statuses are protected across state lines.

Dual federalism =

a concept where the federal and state governments operate independently in their own areas of authority, like “separate spheres.” Under this model, each level of government has clear, distinct powers and responsibilities, with little overlap. It was the dominant view of federalism in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Critics argue it can limit cooperation and flexibility between states and the federal government.

Cooperative federalism =

a system where the federal, state, and local governments work together to solve problems and implement policies. Unlike dual federalism’s “separate spheres,” cooperative federalism involves shared responsibilities and collaboration. It became more common during the New Deal era when the federal government expanded its role. This approach helps coordinate efforts on issues like education, transportation, and public health.

New Federalism =

a political philosophy that aims to return more power and decision-making to the states, reducing the size and influence of the federal government. It emerged in the late 20th century, especially under Presidents Nixon and Reagan. This approach emphasizes block grants, which give states more flexibility in how they use federal funds. New Federalism seeks to promote state innovation and local control while limiting federal oversight.

State constitutions =

the foundational legal documents that establish how each U.S. state government operates. They outline the structure of the state’s government, define powers, and protect the rights of citizens within that state. State constitutions can be much longer and more detailed than the U.S. Constitution. They can also be amended more easily to address local needs and issues.

Devolution =

the process of transferring power and responsibilities from the federal government back to the states or local governments. It aims to give states more control over policies and programs that affect their residents. Devolution became popular in the late 20th century as a way to reduce federal oversight and increase local decision-making. It often involves shifting funding and authority while still maintaining some federal standards.

Propositions laws or measures =

proposed directly by citizens and voted on in state or local elections. If a majority of voters approve, the proposition becomes law. They're a form of direct democracy, often used in states like California.

Special districts =

independent, local government units created to perform specific functions, such as managing water supply, public transportation, or fire protection. They operate separately from city or county governments and have their own taxing authority. Special districts help provide focused services that cross city or county boundaries. They are common across the U.S. and vary widely in size and purpose.

Ordinances =

local laws or regulations passed by city or county governments. They cover a wide range of issues like zoning, noise control, and public safety. Ordinances apply only within the local area and must follow state and federal laws. They help communities manage daily life and maintain order.

Local governments =

the administrative bodies that govern cities, towns, counties, or districts within a state. They provide services like police and fire protection, public schools, and local road maintenance. Local governments have their own elected officials and can pass laws called ordinances. They play a key role in addressing community needs and implementing state policies at the ground level.

Unfunded mandates =

rules or requirements set by the federal government that states or local governments must follow without receiving federal funding to cover the costs. This means states have to pay for these programs or regulations themselves, which can strain their budgets. Unfunded mandates often cause tension between different levels of government. They raise debates about fairness and the balance of power in federalism.

Legalism =

the idea that "the law is the law," no matter the situation—even if the outcome feels unfair

Common law =

The U.S. Constitution is the written foundation of the legal system, while common law is built through court decisions over time, allowing the law to grow and adapt to new situations

Judicial review =

Judicial review means that judges, especially in the Supreme Court, can look at laws or government actions and decide if they go against the Constitution. If they do, the court can cancel them

Legal aid =

free or low-cost legal help for people who can’t afford a lawyer. It helps make sure that everyone has access to justice, not just the rich

Statutory law =

laws that are written and passed by a legislature, like Congress or a state parliament, law that comes from official lawmakers, not from judges or court decisions

Judiciary =

the court system, all the judges and courts that interpret and apply the law

Miranda VS Arizona =

(1966) a famous U.S. Supreme Court case that said: Police must tell people their rights when arresting them.

These are called Miranda rights, and they include:

-        The right to remain silent

-        The right to a lawyer

-        That anything you say can be used in court

If police don’t give this warning, a suspect’s confession may not be used in trial. This case protected the 5th Amendment right against self-incrimination (being forced to confess)

Litigation =

the process of taking a dispute to court (If two people or groups can’t agree, and they go to court to solve it, that’s litigation. It includes everything from filing a lawsuit to the final court decision)

Supreme court =

the highest court in the US, it has the final say on legal and constitutional issues, and its decisions apply to the whole country. It reviews important cases and can overturn laws that go against the U.S. Constitution.

Criminal law =

the part of the law that deals with crimes—things like theft, assault, or murder (involves the government accusing someone of breaking the law, and the goal is to punish the person if they’re found guilty)

Precedent =

a legal decision made by a court in the past that is used as a guide for deciding similar cases in the future (good for consistency and fairness)

Jurisdiction =

the legal power or authority a court (or other legal body) has to hear and decide a case. It depends on things like the location, type of case, or people involved (= who is allowed to deal with as case)

Constitutionalism =

means that the government must follow a set of rules written in a constitution. It also means that leaders don’t have unlimited power: they must obey the law, just like everyone else

Plea bargaining =

when someone accused of a crime agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge (or get a lighter punishment) in return for not going to trial

ABA =

(American Bar Association) is a national group of lawyers that helps set rules for legal education, supports lawyers, and works to improve the justice system (It does not make laws, but it has a big influence on legal education and ethics)

Bill of Rights =

the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution that protect basic freedoms like free speech, religion, the right to a fair trial, and protection from unfair government actions

Rights culture =

It’s a culture where people say, “I know my rights!” and are ready to defend them, are aware of their individual rights and often use the law to protect those rights

Commerce clause =

a part of the U.S. Constitution that gives Congress the power to make laws about trade between states, with other countries, and with Native American tribes (lets federal government control business and trade that crosses state lines)

NRA =

(National Rifle Association) supports the right to own guns and works to stop laws that limit gun use

Prosecutor =

a lawyer who works for the government and tries to prove that someone is guilty of a crime in court

Impeachment =

when a government official (like the President) is officially accused of serious wrongdoing. It doesn’t mean they’re removed yet, it just means they’re put on trial. If found guilty, they can be removed from office.

Civil law =

the part of law that deals with disagreements between people or groups, not crimes. It covers things like contracts, property, divorce, or suing someone for money

US district courts =

the main trial courts in the federal system. They are where federal cases start, like ones involving federal laws, the Constitution, or disputes between states. They handle both civil and criminal cases

State supreme court =

the highest court in a U.S. state. It makes the final decisions on state laws and can overturn lower court rulings. Its decisions can only be changed by the U.S. Supreme Court if a federal issue is involved

Adversary system =

the legal system used in the U.S. where two sides (prosecution and defense) argue their case in court, and a neutral judge (and sometimes a jury) decides who is right

Contingency fees =

Contingency fees mean that a lawyer only gets paid if they win the case, usually a percentage of the money their client receives

Pro bono =

a lawyer works on a case for free, to help someone who can’t afford to pay ("pro bono publico" = for the public good)

Jury =

a group of regular people (usually 6 to 12) who listen to a court case and decide the facts, like whether someone is guilty or not guilty

Militia =

a group of ordinary citizens trained to fight in emergencies, not part of the regular army

Legal appeal =

when someone asks a higher court to review a decision made by a lower court because they believe a mistake was made. The goal is to change or overturn the original decision

arguments death penalty

-        Pro:

o   Seen as a form of justice for the most serious crimes like murder

o   Supporters believe it discourages crime by showing that some acts will have the highest punishment

o   It is also viewed as a way to honor victims and provide closure to families

-        Con:

o   Critics argue it risks killing innocent people due to legal errors

o   It is seen as unequal, often affecting poor people and minorities more than others

o   Many believe it does not discourage crime more than life in prison

o   It raises moral and human rights concerns, especially in a modern democracy

arguments gun contro

-        Pro:

o   Believe it helps reduce gun violence, including mass shootings

o   It is seen as a way to protect public safety while still allowing reasonable ownership

o   Many think there should be stronger background checks and limits on military-style weapons

-        Con:

o   Opponents often cite the Second Amendment, which protects the right to bear arms

o   They believe gun ownership is part of American freedom and necessary for self- defense

o   Some argue that restricting guns only punishes law-abiding citizens, not criminals

1.      What is the role of the US Supreme Court justices?

The U.S. Supreme Court justices are the highest judges in the country. Their main job is to interpret the Constitution and decide whether laws or government actions are constitutional—this power is called judicial review.

They do not make laws, but their decisions can have a huge impact on American society and politics. For example, they’ve ruled on big issues like civil rights, abortion, free speech, gun laws, and more.

There are nine justices, and they are appointed for life by the President (with approval from the Senate). This is meant to keep them independent and free from political pressure

AFL-CIO (American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations) =

The largest federation of unions in the United States, formed in 1955 through the merger of the AFL and CIO. Represents millions of workers, advocating for labor rights, better wages, and working conditions. Plays a key role in U.S. labor politics, though its influence has declined with union membership.

Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) =

A stock market index tracking 30 major U.S. companies. Serves as a key indicator of overall economic health and investor confidence in the U.S. economy.

Budget Deficit =

Occurs when government spending exceeds its revenue in a fiscal year. Persistent deficits can lead to national debt growth, affecting government spending, interest rates, and future economic stability.

Environmentalism =

A movement advocating for the protection of the environment and sustainable practices. Influences policy, especially on energy, pollution, and climate change. It often clashes with industrial and economic interests like fossil fuel production and fracking.

NYSE (New York Stock Exchange) =

The largest and most prestigious stock exchange in the world. Symbolizes American capitalism and is a major hub of global finance, influencing investment flows and corporate growth.

Arbitration =

A method of resolving disputes outside of court, often used in labor negotiations. Promotes quicker and less adversarial conflict resolution between employers and employees or unions.

NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations) =

A major electronic stock exchange with a focus on technology and growth companies. Represents the performance of tech and innovative sectors, often indicating trends in entrepreneurship and innovation.

Fracking (Hydraulic Fracturing) =

A method of extracting oil and gas from underground rock formations. Boosted U.S. energy production and reduced dependence on foreign oil, but raised environmental and health concerns.

Entrepreneurs =

Individuals who start and manage businesses, often taking financial risks. Key drivers of innovation, job creation, and economic growth in the U.S. economy; central to the American Dream narrative.

Trade Balance =

The difference between a country's exports and imports. A negative trade balance (trade deficit) can affect currency value and debt; the U.S. has run consistent deficits, sparking debates on trade policy.

Deregulation =

The removal or simplification of government rules in industries. Intended to foster competition and reduce costs, but can lead to market instability, as seen in the 2008 financial crisis.

Knights of Labor =

An influential early labor union founded in 1869. Pioneered efforts for workers’ rights, including 8-hour workdays and equal pay, laying the foundation for later unions like the AFL.

Social Mobility =

The ability of individuals or families to move up or down the economic ladder. A core part of the American Dream; declining mobility is a major concern in debates about inequality and fairness.

Recession =

a period of economic decline typically marked by a fall in GDP, rising unemployment, declining consumer spending, and business cutbacks. (e.g. the Great Depression = worst, 1980s, Great Recession)

The Great Recession =

(2007–2010) a major economic downturn triggered by a housing and credit crisis. The government cut interest rates to 1% and intervened to stabilize banks and prevent deflation

Service Industries =

sectors providing intangible goods (e.g., healthcare, finance, education). Became dominant post-WWII, especially from the 1970s onward, due to globalization and technology.

Impacts:

-        Shift from manufacturing to services

-        Increased income inequality

-        Rise of gig economy and need for new skills

-        Major contributors to GDP (e.g., finance, tech)

-        Challenges: wage gaps, job insecurity, retraining demands

John D. Rockefeller =

founded Standard Oil and used aggressive tactics like horizontal integration to dominate the oil industry. His near-monopoly led to public backlash and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). Symbol of corporate power in the late 19th/early 20th century.

Blue Collar Workers = .

manual laborers in sectors like manufacturing and construction. Integral to U.S. industrial growth. Traditionally seen as "lower middle class" rather than part of a European-style working class

Tariffs =

taxes on imports to protect domestic industries. Key to 19th–20th century economic policy. Favored by Northern industrialists but opposed by Southern farmers, creating political tensions.

Wall Street =

symbol of U.S. financial markets. Based in NYC, it influences investment, corporate finance, and policy. Its unchecked speculation contributed to the 1929 crash and the Great Depression, prompting reforms.

Median Income =

the midpoint income in a population. Used to assess economic well-being and highlight income disparities, especially among racial and demographic groups.

Corporations =

large, stock-issuing businesses with limited liability and separated ownership/management. Drivers of economic growth and innovation, but also sources of monopolistic behavior and political influence.

Raw Materials =

basic inputs like minerals and timber that fueled U.S. industrialization (1865–1914). Over time, emphasis shifted from raw material exports to manufacturing goods.

Monopoly =

market dominated by one provider, reducing competition and innovation. Often leads to higher prices and is subject to antitrust regulation.

Anti-Trust Laws =

laws like the Sherman Antitrust Act promote competition and limit monopolies to protect consumers and markets.

Roaring Twenties =

A decade of economic boom and cultural change ending with the 1929 crash. Industrial overproduction, speculative investing, and protectionist tariffs contributed to instability.

The Great Depression =

began with the 1929 stock market crash. Marked by mass unemployment and business failures. Led to FDR's New Deal and a new role for government in the economy.

New deal =

FDR’s response to the Great Depression (1933 onward). Introduced job programs, market regulations (SEC), and welfare (e.g., Social Security Act of 1935) to restore confidence and stability.

1944 Bretton Woods Conference =

post-WWII summit that established the IMF and World Bank to promote global economic stability. Aimed at liberalized trade and international cooperation.