375 final :(

Haxby (2001) → object processing led by FFA or disributed patterns?

within category correlatios remained high and between category correlations remained low, even after excluding maxiamlly responsive voxels (hot spots)

• suggests that object recognition supported by distributed representations rather than specialized molecules

Gauthier and Tarr → Greebles Study, expertise hypothesis?

train someone to be expert for a novel stimulus, fMRI showed robust FFA activation for novel sitmulus that was not present before training

• showed that FFA may reflect perceptual experitse developed through experience rather than being innate ‘face-only’ processor

Parvizi (2012) → role of FFA in face perception using ECoG and direct electrical stimulation

stimulating patients FFA casued immediate distortion in percpertion of researchers face, while perception of other objects remanned normal

• provides causal evidence that FFA is essntial for subjective perception of faces

Ellis et al. → skin conductance in Capgras syndrome, investigte disconnect between recognition and emotion

Capgras patiens showed no difference in SCR between familiar and unfamiliar faces, despite being able to identify people

• susggest syndrome is caused by disconnection between visual recogntiion system adnd automatic emotional response system

Peterson (1998) →PET and subtractive logic , identify brain regions involved in word processing and verb generation

generating verbs as opposed to just reading them prouced significantly greater activity in left inrerior PFC

• region interpreeted as a potential amodal semantic store, also highlighted methodological risks regarding uncontrolled cogntiive activity during rest blocks

Grill Spector (2006)→ repitition supression determine which brain regions sensitive to conceptual meaning vs. low level visual features

left fusiform gyrus showed continous suppression even for different exempalrs of the same category, wheras other regions showed a ‘release’ from suppression

• ientifies left fusiform gyrus as a region that maintains modality independent semantic representations

Polyn (2005) → MVPA see if neural patterns assocaited with specific category reappear just before a participant recalls an item from that category

pattern classifier successfully predcited the catgeroy of the recalled item several seconds before participant atually spoke

• provides evidence for contextual reinstatement, suggesitng that large-scale brain state shifts facilitate memory retrieval

Serences (2009) → snesory recruitment hypothesis? do early sensory areas maintain info during felays if overall BOLDsingl drops

although BOLD signal in V1 fell to baseline, MVPA succcesfully decoded the ientity of the remembred stimulus from the delay period activity

• cinfirms that early visual areas are recruited to maintain a coy of stimulus attributes during short-term storage

Emrich (2013) → fo load sesitive regions actually carry stimulus-specific information

regions like intraparietal sulcus showed load-sensitive activity but did not carry stimuli-relevant information that could be decoded by classifieres

• suggests that load-related BOLD increasses mayy reflect effort or stress rather thatn the actual conetnet of working memory

Wu (20212) → use ERPs to see if aciton video games affects eary sensory or late attnetional processing stages

particiapnts who improved at the fame shoed larger amplitudes in late ERP ocmponents, but no changes seen in early components

• indicates that video fame expertise enhances later stages of attenional control ratehr than initial sensory processing

Green and Bevelier (2023) → investigate causal effect of action video games on temporal attention using attnetional blink paradigm

training on an action game improved taget detextion in rapid successions and reduce the blinl

• provided causal evidence that gaming can enhance temporal attention and reduce attentional bottlenecks

wang (2017) and bashore (2018) → compare attentional control using flanker task between athletes in unpredicctable ‘open’ sports and predictable ‘closed’ sports

athletes in open sports had smaller interference costs than those in closed ssports

• suggests that expertise in uprediactable environments leads to a superior aility to suppress irrelevant information

newsome (1989) → investigate if activity in Middle Temporal is causally related to perceptual decisions about motion

microstimulation of specific MT nerurons successfully biased a monkeys judgements toward the mtoion direction preferred by those neurons

• demonstrate a direct causal link between specific neuronal firign and perceptual decision making

Platt and glimcher (1999) → test wether neurons in the lateral intraparietal (LIP) area encode the expected value of a choice

LIP nueorn activity correalted with magnitude of the reward assocaited with specific eye movement

• indicates the oculomotor system represents a ‘value map’ used to guide behaviour

sholz (2009) → use high resolution fMRI to see in temporoparietal junction (TPJ) has overlapping or distinct tefions for theory of Minf and attnetionn

found only 10% voxel overlap between regions identified by the ToM task and the spatial attnetion task

• suggests TPJ contain neighbouring but functually distinct sub regions for social cognitio and attnetion

young (2010) → target RTPJ with repetitive TMS to test its causal role in making moral judgements

disrupting RTPJ caused partiicapnts to judge ‘attmepted harm’ ( bad intent, no outcome) as being more morally permissible

• shows the TPJ is neccessary for incorporating intnet iinto moral reasoning, especially in ambigious situations

burke (2010) → cmpare benfits of individual learning vs. observatioal learning

simply seeing aother person’s choice, even without the outcome, significantly imporved learning performance

• idnetified dsitinct error signals in the PFC and striatum that allow social information to substitute for direct expression

phelphs (2000) → investigate if amygdala activation correlates with implicitly held racial biases

amygdala ctivity for unfmialiar faces correlated with bias scores; however this correlation dissappeared when particiapnts viewed fmailiar, liked faces

• suggests that sutomatic, early amygdala eesponses can be overridden by higher-level vognitive knowledge

engell, haxby, todorov (2007) → correlated amygdala ctviity with nidividual and consensus judgements of facial trustworthness

individual amygdala activity correlated more strongly with the group average rating than with the individuals own trustworthiness rating

• suggests amygdala provides consistent, autoamtic assessment of trustworthinss that is subsequently modified by idiosyncratic, controlled hsootry at the individual level

owen (2006)/ Monti (2010) → use fMRI to detect covert awareness in patients diagnosed as being in a vegetative state

participants showed appropriatee SMA and PPA activity when asked to imagine playing tennis or navigating their house; some evenused this to answer yes/no questions

• proved some vegetative patients retain willfull modulation of brain activity despite being behaviourally unresponsive

Ress and Heeger (2003) → investigte if V1 acitivity reflects external stimulus or our internal consious perception of it

V1 activity duing ‘false alarms’ looked identical to activity during actual ‘hits’

• demnstrates that even early sensory areeas like V1 match our subjective consious experience rahter than physical reality

Bennett → dead salmon study→ risk of type 1 errors in fMRI when not corecting for multiple compairsons

foudnstatistically significant brain activatio in dead salmon completing a perspectiv taking task when using uncorrected statistics

• highlights absolute necesity of using statistical corrections given the tens of thousands of copariosns made in neuroimaging

Feredoes and Postle (2007) → estimate test-retest reliability in fMRI

found that only 5-15% of voxels reached significance across multiple session sof the same task with the same participants

• raises critical concerns about reliabilitty of funcitonal localization i single scanning session s

cognitive approach

• measured trough observable behaviour

• make inferences about undelrying cogntive activity by considering what these measures say abt how the mind works

neuroscience approach

• measured through nerual activity

• make inferences about undelrying cogntive activity by considering what these measures say abt how the mind works

theoretical significance

general distinction in scientific contributions

practical significance

connecting a finding, body of work or theory to a practical application

Bellier(2023) → decode music from neural activity, using iEEG pply nonlinear stimulus reconstruciton approach after playing a song

succesfully reconstructed recognizabe; version of song direct form neural recordings

• confirmed right hemisphere dominance for music perception and identified new subregion in superior temporal gyrus

• provide model for how the brain typically processes musical qualities, aiding study of confitions like amusia

subtractive logic

methodological approach used to isolate specific cognitive operations or neural signals by cmparing 2 diffeernt conditions

mental chronometry

make inferences about diffeing time courses of various cognitive processes

• subtract the avergae reaction time of a simple task froma more complex one to isolate the duration of the added component

default network

specific network of brain regions that are active when an individual is at rest and not engaged in any specific task

• decreases activity during task performance and increases activity when there is no task

false positives (i.e. type 1 error)

statistical errors that can occur when interpreting imaging data

amusia

people who dont perceive/experience musi c in the typical way

• sometimes referred to as tone deafness

fusiform area (FFA)

located on ventral surface of the temporal lobe→ known for repsonding preferentially to face and face-like stimuli

localization of function

the idea that we have specific brain regions that are specialized for certain kinds of stimuli and/or engagng in partiucalr kinds of processing

phrenology

a belief system that attempted to realte variation in the shape of different parts of the skull with behvaiour and cognition

• similar to modern concept of localization of fucntion

EEG

electrodes used to stimulate various parts of the brain to map out what parts of the brain did what

• provides oveall measure of electrical activity emanating frombrain on basis of signal that reaches electrodes on the scalp

ERPs

measure average characteristic chnages in electrical activity associated with particular psychological events

• requires signal averaging to form a grand average for multiple subjects across many trials

• smaller amplitude/ delayed onset of an ERP could indicate diminished or impaired processing

MEG

maps subtle changes in the magnetic fields around the scalp caused by fluctuation in electrical activity in brain

• more sensitive than EEG

• high temporal reslution imaging

MRI

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to generate anatomical images of body tissue

• high spatial resolution imaging

fMRI

easures changes in the BOLD signal , which is correlated with cogntiive activity

• as neuron becomes more active they require oxygen, which changes the magnetic properties of the surrounding blood

multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA)

looks for reliable patterns ofdistributed activity across the brain

pattern classifier

trained recognize how (the distibuted activity throughout) brain erliably changes when viewing different categories of stimuli

• use the model to predict what caegory of stimuli an experimanttal particiapnts was currently viewing, based on their neural activity (ex. neural mind reafing)

hemodynmic repsonse function (HRF)

describes the time course of increased blood flow in repsonse to the presentation of discreet stimuli

how can fMRI be used to assess funcitonal connectivity

1. use task related fMRI to determine brain location assocaited with specific task (seed location)

2. measure reesting state fMRI at seed location

3. measure resting-statee fMRI at aother location (test loocation)

4. calculate correlatoon between seed and test location responses to assess degree of funcitonal connectivity

PET

early funcitonal brain imaging method involving the injection of radioactive tracers that are rapidly metabolized by paricalr cells until gradually braking down

• high spatial resolution imaging

magnetic resonsnace spectroscopy (MRS)

technique that uses an MRI machine to produce estimates related to metabolic changes in the brain

• allows estimtes realted to the chemical cimposition inparticular rain region

fNIRS

estimates changes in neural activation - use hemoglobin to absorb infrared light

• chnages in relative proportion of light refelcte dback can be used to estimate changes in heoglobi concentration

• measures neuronal activitation

TMS

uses a magnetic dield and electrical current to modualte brain activity at specific ites (generally decreasing or increasing firing)

• create virtual lesion→ produce temporaty impairment , if repetive use can produce longer lasting changes in neuronal activity

• making cuasal inferences

tDCS

broadly increase (using anodal stimulation) or decrease (using cathodal stimulation) activation in one hemipshere

• potential for imrpoving reading behvaiour in dyslexics

optogenetics

involves gentically enginerring neurons that are light sensitive

• allows nueons to be effective controlled, or tuned on/off by exposing them to light

lesion studies

involve trianing a nn-human animal toperform a task, damaging part of the brain, then observing how that damage affects the orgaisms ability to perform the previously learned task

• allows straightforward causal inferences to be made

• difficult to generalize observations

case studies

in-depth invesitgations into individuals presenting with atypical neurology

• provide unique research opportunities

• difficutl to gernalize findings

visual agnosia

defciits in visually-based object recognition, which occur in the absence of other acompanying problems with lower-level visual processing

amodal form

independent of any one modality, not constrained to vision, hearing, etc. then applied to representations in specific modalities

apperceptive agnosia

broad catgeory of visla agnosia characterized by profound ipairment in visally based object recognition despite relatively lower-level visual sensation

• result frorm famage to cortical networks ‘downstream’ from pirmary visual cortex (V1)

• inability to recognize fmailiar objects based on shape or opy model drwings

assocaitive agnosia

specific type of visual agnosia characterized by an inability to connect visaul percetions with their meaning or memory

• unable to recognize or identify what the object is based on visual input alone

• associated with disconnection syndrome- disconnect between perception and knowledge

category specific visual agnosia

involve mor selective impairmetns in identifying objects belonging to a particualr category

• ex. prosopagnosia

type identification

higher-level (superordinate) category ex. dogs, cats, faces, etc.

• generally what we think of as being affected in agnosia

token identification

specific exmples froma given catgeroy, ex. their dog my cat, your facce, etc.

• what seems to be affected in prospagnosia

electrocorticography (ECoG)

records electrical signals directly from the cortex surface

• prove greater sensitivity compared to trying to pick ip rmenant of those signals by placing electordes dirsctl on the scale

capgras syndrome

involves delusional belief that someone they know has been replaced by an imposter or doppelganger

• can occur with various forms of pathology

• abnormal connectivity between inferotemporla cortex and amygdala

• various differences ic onnection s between temporal lobe and limbic system

reduplicative paramnesia

invovles a delusional belief that a fmailiar location has been duplicated

• damage to frontal areas

fregoli delusion

involves belief that multiple individuals who are presented as distinct people are in fact the same pattern

• thinking somone has transforeed themselves into another form, adopted a disguise, etc.

• associated with damage to drontal and temporal-parietal aread

Petersen (1988) → use PET and subtractive logic to idnetify btain regions involved in word processing

produced signifintly greater activity in the left inferioir prefforntal PFC compared to ismpply reading or repeating words

• region proposed as an amodal sematnics store→ proces meaning regrlfess of whether the input was visual or auditory

tulving (1994) →compared neural acivation during the presentation of novel versus familiar stimuli to isolate encoding processes

found signitificantly greater activation in the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus diring presention of new sitmuli compared to olf stimuli

• suggests that brians encoding mechaniss are automatically recruited by novelty→ offered solution to hte problem that the hippocmappus is always on, while it cannot be turned off, researchers can devise conditions where it is relatively less ctive to isolate encoding acivity

Stern (1996) → manipulate encodung by varying the amount of info particpants had to porcess

obseved greater activation in the many-item condition within posterior hippocampuss, parahippocamapl gyrus ad fusiform gyrus

• confirmed that hippocmapl formation participates in encoding novel information- demonstrates that these regions scale activity based on ovlume of information being encoded

dual process models

proposes that specific mental funcitons are supported by 2 disticnt and often complementary systems or pathway

dual process model of memory

familairity and recollection

• free recall is thought to depend on recollection

• recognition can be supported by familliarity

complimentary properties that wokr toegether to facilitate retriev;

recollection

involved with the retrieval of various assocaitions involving qualitative information

• slow, all or nothing process

• assoacited with hippocampal processing

familiarity

invovled with a quantitative memory signal that gauges how likely it is that stimuli had been previously envountered

• rapid, relatively automatic, varies along a contnuum

• supported by various neocortical regions of MTL→ incuding perirhinal cortex

semantic memory

meories for fact whose retrieval is not accompanied by information pertaining to how, when, or where that information was acquired

semanticization

gradual shift in the nature of memories from episodic to semantic

domain-specific knowledge hypothesis

proposes conceptual knowledge is organized inthe brain according to specific taxonomic categories

• based on categoires of things→ brain has specialized systems for different categroies

• exatcly 3 categories- animals, fruits/vegtables, and artifiacts

modality sepcific knowledge hypothesis

proposes that conceptual knwoledge is orgaized in the brain according to the funcitonal modalities→ such as visual perception or motor control

• based on type of input (sense)→ brain organized by how information comes in

• menaing of object is not stored in one spot, but emerges from assoctions between many regions

what areas are associated wih greater activation in areas related to action generation

posterior middle temporal gyrus and remotor ortex

what is a drawback of caegory specific models

they represent a significant departure form everything else we know about brain organization, according to subsytems and delineated by funciton or modality but not by semantic content

anomia

deficit in object naming

• semantic dementia → related to more genral problems with the semanitc memory system

• fluent primary progressive aphasia → emphasize role of language specifically

voxel based morphometry (VBA)

allows estimates of grey matter density

adlam (2006) → progressive lossof knowledge wiht early stage progressive aphasia

used voxel based morphometry to estimate grey matter density and idnetify peak areas of atrophy

• found bilateraldegeneration in the anterior temproal lobes of patients predicited both verbal and non-verbal perfromance deficits

• suggests a close fucnitonal relationship between these 2 parts of the brain

martin (1995) → imaging color and action

subtract the data (ex. fMRI) assocaited with the object naming condition from the color or action conditions → produces the following contrasts which isolate contributions of these 2 properties ro object knowledge

• actio naming actiavted parts of the brain near regions important fro processing motion and other prceptual-baed qualities. color naming assocatied with activity in vetnral temporal cortex → both activated parts of left PFC and premotro cortex

synaesthesia

involves the reliable, automatic, and involuntary triggering of a specific perceptual experience when processing a specific snesory stimulus

Paulesu, Harrison, Baron-Cohen and Wacon (1995) → Imaging knledge:synasthetes

used PET scnning to detect activation when synthasethetes heard spoken words and tones

• synthesetes show greater acivtion when hearing words in several areas

repetition suppression effects

observed in fMRI data, in which the BOLD response gradually declines with repeated presentation of stimuli that have some king of commonality

• similar to desensitization and habituation

fMRI adaptation paradigm

can be used to attempt to determine what propeties a given brain region responds to, basde on the presence (or absence) of these effects

grill-spector (2026) → invetigated how brain represents object knowledge by using fMRI adaptation

determine whcih brain region are senstitive to higher-level coneptual meaning versus low-level visual features

• all regions showed repetition suppression for same items and release from suppression for novel items

• suggest that left fusiform gyrus is sensitive to the concept of an object rather than just its low-level visual appearnace

contextual reinsttement

involves first activating knowledge about more general properties then using that general knowledge to focus memory search

• broadly related to encoding specificity principle

encoding specificity principle

framework which suggests that memory retrival is most efective whenc onditions, cues, or context present at the time of retrival mathc those that were present during the intial encoding of the information

modal memory

short term memory as simply being a passive buffer that allows for thetemporary retention of information that hasnt been committed to long-term memory

short term memory supported by

prolonged neural acivation related to mechnisms involved with direct perception

• activation of semantic representations

• regions/networkds involved with cognitive contorl

jacobsen (1963) →bilateral removal of the frintal cortex in monkeys that resutled in chance level performacne ona delayed repsonse task

concluded that the prefrntal cortex is responsible for immediate mmeory

malmo (1942) → repeated jacobsen study adding lights off consition

found that monkeys perfromace dramticallly increased in lights off condiiton, and remainf clsoe to chance levels for the lights on condition

• hints at contributions of the PFC related to cogntivie control

proactive interference

when old information interferes with learning or remembering new info

kubota and niki (1971)→ role for sustained firing

took recording from neurons in the monkey PFC for delayed response→ found 2 classes of task relted activity

• those that become active during the delay (repsonsible for ‘holding’ the info in memory) and those that become active just prior to their resposne period (related to motor response)

sustained activity in PFC necessary for…

temorary retention of informatin/representations

what did petirdes find aboyt the prefrontal cortex (PFC)

• PFC lesions dont impair simple mmory storage

• they DO impair complex WM tasks

• PFC controls/manipulates memory, not stores it

what did goldman-rakic suggest about the what/where pathways

they make differntial cotnributions for holding different kinds of information in WM

• information about identity vs. space

sensory recruitment hypothesis

proposes that STM/WM at least in part be supported by the same systems that handle basic perceptual processing

Serences (2009) → neural baasis of STM to determine if senosyra reas play an active role in information holding

test the sensory recrutiment hypotheis, which proposed that SRM is supported by the same neural systems responsible for basic perceptual processing

• BOLD singla showed that activiity in V1 dropped completly back to baseline during emmory delay, MVPA succesfully decoded specific stimulus attributes duirng delay— patterns of activity maintaine during the memory period was highl similar to patterns evoked whrn paticiapntsactually see stimuli

• confirms that early sensory areas are actively recruited to miantaina high-fielity copy of remembered details, rather than the brain relying solely on abstract represetnations in the PFC → brain regions can represent info even when it shows no change in signal intensity

emrich (2013) → applied MVPA while testing STM for direction of motion

found that the IPSand various parts of PFC to be load sensitive, meaning that changes in the load manipulation were correlated with changes in activation

• larger loads may have required more effort, created more stress, etc. which accounted for the load snesitve activity