molecular final

What is a seizure

a transient alteration in behavior casued by abnormal synchronous firing of neurons

how can epileptic activity in the brain be detected?

EEG

In focal seizures, where does hyper synchronous neuronal activity present itself

a specific brain region within one hemisphere

What are generalized seizures characterized by

engagement of a bilateral network of brain regions

What is the term for an area of the brain that generates epileptic activity

seizure focus

what is the inheritance pattern of epilepsy in most patients?

complex and polygenic

how do most anticonvulsants work?

by enhancing GABA-mediated inhibtory synaptic transmission

Which molecule has recently been approved fro treatment of seizures in patients with dravet syndrome and does not involve the regulation of ion channels for GABA or glutamate

cannabidoil

what is the term for collection of diverse disorders characterized by an enduring predisposition to repeated seizures

epilepsy

which test can be used to record electrical potentials from numerous surface electrodes on the scalp n order to evaluate neuronal population activity

EEG

What are the major processes by which neurons die in neurodegenerative diseases?

necrosis and apoptosis

what are considered the classical neuropathologic hallmarks of alzheimer disease?

neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques

what is the most common cause of severe memory impairment in the elderly

alzheimers disease

Historically, what was thought to be primary pathogentic mechanism behind alzhiemer’s disease

amyloid beta peptide accumulation

what is the primary focus of therpay for parkinsons disease

restoring dopamine function

what are the major genetic contributiors to amytophic lateral sclerosis

SOD1 and TDP-43

what protein is assocaited with neurofibrillary tangles in alzheimers diease?

tau

what are two major casues of cell death in neurodegenerative diseases?

excitotoxicity and mitchondrial dysfunction

which disease is primarily characterized by the seelctive death of upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex and lower motor neurons int eh spinal cord

aLS

Which gene mutation is linked to rare inherited forms of alzheimer disease?

APP

Which process contributes to neuronal death after a stroke?

excitotoxicity from excessive glutamate release

what is the primary focus of preventive therapy for stroke?

reducing the rsk of blood clots and emboli

which medication is commonly used as an anti platelet agent for stroke prevention

clopidogrel

what is the aim of acute stroke treatments?

selectively restoring the brains blood supply

which medication is used for acute stroke treatment to dissolve blood clots?

tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)

what is the primary focus of prorecovery treatments for stroke

physical therapy

which system is beelived to be activated in migraine headaches

trigeminovascualr system

what substance, when released, casues vasodilation and pain in migrane headaches

calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)

what is the electrophysiologic correlate of migraine aura?

cortical spreading depression

which class of drugs is commonly used in abortive treatment of migraine headaches

triptants

Identify 2 receptors signaling pathways that tigger cell deaht. Describe the process for receptor activation and explain the intracellular out comes of each pathway

intracellular and extracellular
the extracellular pathway involves transmembrane receptors - examples : FAS TNF alpha and P75
intracellular pathways relies on permiabilization of the outer membrane of mitochondira - example: CYTc, ENDO G, AIF and BCL2 family

WHat is the hypothesized process for cortical spreading depression in migraine? describe the proposed mechanisms for this process involving neurovascular unit

cortical spreading depressing is a slow wave of neuronal and glial depolarization that moves acorss teh cortex and is thought to underlie migraine aura. It begins with excessive glutamate and potassium relrease, causing widespread depolarization followed by temporary neural supresson. Within the neurovascular unit, neurons, astrocytes, endothelial cells and blood vessels respond by altering cereberal blood flow - intial brief vasoconstriction is followed by vasodilation and neurogenic inflammation. this process activates trigmenal pain pathways and prmotes release of inflammatory mediators such as CGRP which contributes to migraine headache

Define and describe epilepsy. Compare and contrast the differneces bewteen partial and generalized seirzures and describe two subtypes within eahc category

epilsepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seirzures caused by abnormal synchronous neuronal firing in the brian. Partial seizures begin in one localized brain region. while generlaized seizures involvde both hemispheres from onset
partial seizure
- focale aware seizure: conscious, localized motor/ sensory symtpoms
- Focal impaired awareness seisure: impaired consiouness and utomatism common
generalized seizure
- Absense seizure: brief loss of awareness with staring
- Tonic-clonic seizure: loss of conciousness with stiffening follwoed by jerking

Name 5 genetic syndromes associated with epilsepsy and state the avilable test associated with each disorder

dravet syndrome - mutation ins SCN1a —> geentic sequencing
Tuberous sclerosis - mutations in TSC1/TSC2 —> genetic tesing

Fragile x SYndrome - FMR1 CGG repeat expansion —> PCR

Rett syndrome - MECP2 mutation —> genetic sequencing

Angelman syndrom - maternal deltaly of UBE3A —→ genetic testing

Explain the mechanisms of calcium homeostasis

What are the two types of strokes? describe the mechanisms of each and provide examples of one drug for prevention, and a treatment option for clot removal

• Ischemic Stroke: caused by blockage of blood vessel by thrombus/embolus → brain ischemia/infarction

  • Prevention drug: Aspirin

  • Clot removal: tPA or mechanical thrombectomy

• Hemorrhagic Stroke: caused by rupture of blood vessel → bleeding into brain tissue

  • Prevention: Antihypertensives

  • Treatment: Surgical clipping/coiling of vessel

Define ALS and describe the major characteristics of this disorder and its typical onset time during the lifespan. dsecribe the interactions that occur in the bran betweem major groups of neurons that underlne the symptoms of als

ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease involving loss of upper and lower motor neurons. It usually begins in mid-to-late adulthood (40–70 yrs).
Major features include muscle weakness, atrophy, fasciculations, spasticity, and eventual respiratory failure. Symptoms arise from degeneration of corticospinal upper motor neurons and spinal/brainstem lower motor neurons, with glutamate excitotoxicity and impaired astrocyte support contributing to neuronal death.

what is the primary treatment for epilepsy. explain teh process and fucntion of three treatment subtypes at the receptor level

Inhibit GABA - Vigobatrin

enhance GABA - Benzodiazepines

Sodium blockers - Phenytoin

explain the two differnt types of migraines and the three distinct phases

CLassic migraine (with aura) and common migraine (without)
Premonitory symprtoms (changes in activity, food cravings and repetetive yawning
Aura (headache, nausea and vomiting)
Postdromal (headache gets worse)