Unit 2 Test

Terms to know(sometimes including examples)

Sensation

involves receiving information from the environment, converting it into a neural message (transduction), and sending to the brain to be evaluated. 

Perception

 involves organizing and interpreting that sensory information. 

bottom-up processing

Primarily relies on external sensory information; influences perception.

• Example : when you see a new object for the first time, like a sculpture in an art gallery, your brain processes the raw visual data—its shape, color, texture, and size—without any preconceived notions or knowledge about it.

top-down processing

Perception processing that primarily relies on internal prior expectation.

• Example: when reading messy handwriting, your brain relies on the overall context of the sentence or paragraph to predict what the unclear word might be. For example, if the sentence is “The cat sat on the ____,” and the last word is scribbled, your prior knowledge and expectations help you guess that the missing word is likely "mat."

internal factors that filter perceptions of the world.

Schema’s and perceptual sets.

Schema

mental structures or cognitive frameworks that organize knowledge and experiences, helping us interpret and predict new information based on what we already know. They are built from past experiences and help create expectations about the world.

• effects interpretations of perception/what we are seeing.

Perceptual Sets

a mental predisposition to perceive things in a particular way, shaped by expectations, emotions, and context. It is a type of “readiness” to perceive specific aspects of a stimulus, often based on recent experiences or what you expect to happen. This is more specific to sensory perception and involves readiness to notice certain aspects of a situation over others. For example, if you’re expecting a phone call, you may be more likely to interpret ambiguous sounds as a phone ringing.

• effects interpretations of perception/what we are sensing.

external factors that filter perceptions of the world.

Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations. Effects interpretations of what is being sensed.

• ex. Psychologists showed that people from India and the Torres-Strait Islands were more susceptible to the horizontal–vertical illusion, but less susceptible to the Müller-Lyer illusion than English participants. Subsequent research replicated these findings with African groups. Researchers found that Khoisan people from rural South Africa were not susceptible to the Müller-Lyer illusion.

Gestalt psychology

Perceptual principles that help explain how humans organize their perceptual world.

• 4 Principles that we need to know.

Gestalt principle of closure.

refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete or fragmented sensory input as a complete and whole object. Our brain fills in the missing information based on past experiences and expectations.

similarity

Refers to the tendency to perceive complex visual information as groups of like things.

What Gestalt Principle is this referring to?

Gestalt principle of figure and ground.

refers to the ability of our brain to distinguish an object or figure from its background.

Gestalt principle of proximity.

holding that (other things being equal) objects or events that are near to one another (in space or time) are perceived as belonging together as a unit.

Attention

interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes.

selective attention

the process of focusing on specific stimuli while filtering out others.

Can includes: Cocktail Party effect, inattentional blindness, and change blindness

cocktail party effect,

people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments.

Inattentional blindness

occurs when we’re so focused on one part of the visual field, that we may ignore or miss some of the other parts.

Change blindness

occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.

Binocular depth cues

utilize both eyes to provide perception of depth. There are 2: retinal disparity and convergence.

Retinal Disparity

determining depth based on the difference between what each eye sees.

Convergence

determining depth based on how much both eyes rotate inward. Your brain senses the degree of inward rotation and uses that information to estimate the distance of an object.

Monocular depth cues

give the illusion of depth on flat or 2-D surfaces. Monocular depth cues allow us to perceive depth and distance using just one eye. These cues are interpreted based on how images are projected onto the retina, which is the light- sensitive layer at the back of the eye. Although the retina itself is flat and 2-D, monocular depth cues help the brain create a sense of 3-D space from these retinal images.

5 Types:

1. Relative clarity

2. Relative size 

3. Texture gradient 

4. Linear perspective 

5. Interposition

Relative clarity

objects that are clear and have more distinct details create sharper retinal images and are perceived as being closer.  Objects that are blurry or hazy create less defined retinal images and are perceived as being farther away.

Relative size

when two objects are known to be the same size, the object that projects a smaller image on the retina is perceived as being farther away, while the object that casts a larger retinal image is perceived as being closer

Texture gradient

the surface texture of an object appears coarser and more detailed up close but becomes finer and smoother as the object recedes into the distance. On the retina, objects that are closer project larger, more detailed patterns, while objects that are farther away produce smaller, less distinct patterns. The retina captures these variations in texture, which helps the brain interpret the depth of the objects.

Linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance, eventually meeting at a point on the horizon (the vanishing point). The closer the lines are to this point, the farther away they appear. The brain processes these retinal images to interpret depth.

Interposition (superimposition)

when one object partially blocks or overlaps another object, the blocked object is perceived as being farther away, and the blocking object is perceived as being closer. The image of the objects is projected onto the retina, and the brain interprets the overlapping images to create a sense of depth. 

Visual perceptual constancies

maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change. These enable us to recognize and interact with objects reliably, despite variations in the way they appear due to changes in lighting, distance, or angle.

Types = size, shape, brightness, and color.

Apparent movement

can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving. This phenomenon is an essential aspect of visual perception because it highlights how the brain interprets and constructs movement based on certain visual cues, even when no actual physical movement is present.

Phi phenomenon

the perception of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. For example, if two stationary lights are flashed on and off in quick alteration at different points on a screen, it can appear as though a single light is moving between them.

Stroboscopic movement

isual phenomenon that occurs when a series of static images are presented in sequence with slight variations, leading to the perception of movement. This principle is used in flipbooks and animation.

Concept

ideas grouped together because of some shared properties or characteristics; Forms the basis of thought.

• This organization may take the form of schemas or scripts 

• Important tool in problem solving 

Prototype

the ideal example for any given concept or the hypothetical “most typical” instance of a category. When people encounter new information, they tend to compare it to their mental prototype of a particular category. Culture and geography influence prototypes.

Prototypical bird: robin

Non-prototypical bird: pterodactyl

Frameworks for thinking

schemas

Assimilation

taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it. Forms/modifies schema.

Accommodation

taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information. Forms/modifies schema.

Problem-solving strategies

1. Trial and error

2. Algorithms

3. Heuristics

4. Insight

5. Intuition

6. Analogies

Trial and error

involves attempting different solutions and eliminating the ones that don’t work

Algorithms

step-by-step method that guarantees a solution if each step is properly executed. Although it is guaranteed to produce a solution, this logical, systematic procedure isn’t always efficient. Takes super long and isn’t efficient in life. usually computers use algorithms.

Heuristics

Efficient shortcuts in problem solving or rules-of-thumb but they can’t guarantee a correct outcome. Heuristics can lead to errors in judgment when decisions are made according to prior expectations.

Insight

The sudden realization (aha!) of how a problem can be solved. Occurs when the problem solver has worked on a problem for a while and then comes up with the solution either during or right after a break from the problem.

Intuition

Arriving at a conclusion without conscious awareness of the thought process involved

Analogies

Use information from one domain to help solve a problem in another domain. But people often don’t spontaneously think of relevant analogies.

Availability heuristic

common strategy for making judgments about likelihood of occurrence in which a person bases such judgments on recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind.

• Use of this strategy may lead to errors of judgment when information that is highly available in memory (e.g., about well-publicized events, such as plane crashes) leads people to believe that those kinds of events are more probable than they actually are, or when the relative unavailability of information (e.g., about less well-publicized causes of death, as from diabetes) leads people to believe that those kinds of events are less probable than they are. Underestimates probability .

Representativeness heuristic

Strategy for making categorical judgments about a given person or target based on how closely the exemplar matches the typical or average member of the category. Prototype. compare to it.

Influences of Decision Making

Mental Set, Priming, Framing.

mental set

prior experiences that were successful. When you do something repeadetly despite the fact you already know it wont work in your current sitiuationbecause it has worked in the past.

Priming

lays a critical role in shaping decision-making processes by activating relevant associations, influencing perceptions of risks and benefits, and guiding behavior in various contexts.

• ex. showing a video of a bunny and then showing a picture→More likely to perceive.

Framing

highlighting certain aspects of information while downplaying others

• Ex: describing a medication as “effective in 90% of cases” can lead to a person to decide to take the medication rather than stating it has a “10% failure rate”

Cognitive Processes that can hinder people from making good decisions

Gamblers Fallacy and Sunk-Cost Fallacy.

Gambler’s fallacy

can hinder decision-making by leading people to make irrational choices based on misconceptions about probability and randomness.

• Ex: A casino roulette wheel lands on red 8 times in a row. A gambler is convinced that black will come up next because they think a balance between red and black is due. In reality, each spin is independent, and the -odds of landing on red or black remain the same as always.

• !!! ALMOST ALL MCQ TALKING ABT GAMBLING WILL BE THIS!!!

Sunk-cost Fallacy

occurs when someone continues a behavior because of previously invested resources (time, money, effort) rather than considering whether continuing is actually beneficial.  The sunk-cost fallacy can create a cycle of poor decision-making by encouraging individuals to prioritize past investments over rational evaluation of present and future opportunities.

Executive functions

are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.

• When executive functions are well-developed, individuals are better equipped to engage in cognitive flexibility and critical thinking, which involves analyzing information, weighing evidence, considering multiple perspectives, and making reasoned decisions.  

Creativity

way of thinking that includes generating novel idea and engaging in divergent thinking 

• Characteristics of creative thinkers:

  • Embrace divergent thinking 

  • Possess a broad range of knowledge about a lot of subjects and are good at using mental imagery 

  • Aren’t afraid to be different – they are more open to new experiences than many people, and they tend to have more vivid dreams and daydreams 

  • Value their independence 

  • Often unconventional in their work, but not otherwise

Convergent Thinking

The ability to give the “correct” answer to standard questions that don’t require significant creativity. Only 1 answer to problem

Divergent thinking

a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions. Multiple answers

• Difficult to teach in certain cultures like Omaha Native American and Japanese cultures 

• Ways to stimulate divergent thought: 

  • Brainstorming 

  • Journaling 

  • Freewriting 

  • Mind or subject mapping 

Functional fixedness

is the tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual way. This rigidity often prevents us from recognizing novel uses of objects that may help us solve a problem.

• Younger children demonstrate less functional fixedness and are likely to problem solve in more creative ways than adults

Long-term Potentiation

A process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, is a biological process for memory.

Types of long term memory

1. Declarative memory(explicit)

   • Semantic

   • Episodic

2. Implicit Memory

   • Procedural

Declarative/ Explicit Memory

Memory that can easily be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memory

Memories of events in your life(can be consciously recalled)

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and other learned information.(can be consciously recalled)

Implicit Memory

Memory that can not be consciously recalled.(only unconsciously)

Procedural Memory

Memory of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection.(everyday tasks)

• ex. Tying shoes or putting your hair into a braid.

Working Memory

has a limited capacity to retain information for a brief period while performing many cognitive tasks/responsible for holding and processing information in the short term.

Working Memory Model

Examines how our primary memory system engages in a dynamic interaction with several components, namely the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.

Central Executive

acts like the “manager” of working memory by controlling attention, prioritizing tasks, and directs components of cognitive tasks to the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological Loop

Handles verbal and auditory information. ntegrated with long term memory to perform cognitive tasks.

• !! Brocas Area"!!

Visuospatial Sketchpad

handles visual and spatial information. integrated with long term memory to perform cognitive tasks.

• !! Parietal lobe and occipital lobe!!

Multi-store Model

Proposes three interacting systems(sensory, short-term, and long term memory) that information must pass through to be remembered. Focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Types of Sensory Information

• iconic=images

• Echoic=sounds

automatic processing

when memory goes straight from sensory memory to long-term memory(doesnt have to be actively remember). Our attention can ___________ filter certain types of information, such as things that are familiar, relevant, or salient to us.

• This type happens for implicit memory

Effortful Processing

When a thoight/idea is passed through all 3 stages of memory(attention, encoding, retrieval). It is actively remembered.

• Explicit Memory

Millers rule

We can hold inly 7± 2 unrelated items into our short-term memory.

• Referred to as the magic number

Strategies to remember more

• Chunking: CIAMTVFBINATOUSASAT

• Mnemonics – PEMDAS, ROYGBIV

• Make it visual

• Rhyming – “In 1492, Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue.”

• Method of loci (aka memory palace)

Levels-of-processing model

Memory is encoded on three levels from shallow to deepest. How one encodes the information to explicit memory will directly affect ones ability to retrieve it.

Structural Processing

Shallowest level of processing, less long-lasting memory. Focusing on somethings structure/make up to remember it. Encoding the basic visual qualities of a word.

Phonemic Processing

2nd most shallow level of processing that leads to less long-lasting memory. Focusing on how it sounds to remember it. Encoding the basic auditory qualities of a word.

Semantic Processing

Deep processing, more long-lasting memory. Encoding the meaning of a word.

Encoded

processes and strategies to get information into memory. How information is ____ can determine how effectively information is stored and retrieved.

Mnemonic Devices

processes that aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory.

• Method of loci (aka memory palace) 

• Acronyms 

  • Ex: forming a word using the first letter of each item.  HOMES for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior) 

• First letter mnemonics 

  • Ex: remembering a list by using the first letters to form a memorable phrase like ROYGBIV or SOHCAHTOA 

• Rhymes and songs

  •  "Do-Re-Mi" from The Sound of Musicto help people remember the order of notes 

Categories(helps encoding)

grouping information based on shared characteristics or commonalities.

Hierarchies

structuring information from broad concepts to more specific details.

Spacing Effect

is a process that can cause significant differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether the information is encoded all at once (massed practice ☹) or distributed over time (distributed practice ☺

Serial Position Effect

Encoding processes can be affected by the order of how the information is presented.

• Primacy + Recency Effect.

Primacy Effect

information presented at the beginning of a list that is more memorable than information presented in the middle of a list.

Recency Effect

information presented at the end of a list that is more memorable than information presented in the middle of a list.

Memory Type 1: Sensory Memory

Storage Distribution: Less than 1 second (iconic) or a few seconds (echoic)

Capacity: Very large, but limited by attention

Content: Raw sensory input (iconic, echoic)

Memory Type 2: Short Term Memory

Storage Distribution: Around 20-30 seconds

Capacity: 7±2 items (limited capacity)

Content: Current conscious thoughts and information

Memory Type 3: Working Memory

Storage Duration: As long as attention is maintained.

Capacity: limited

Content: Temporary info for manipulating and processing

Memory Type 4: Long Term Memory

Storage Duration: Potentially a lifetime.

Capacity: Unlimited

Content: Stored knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Highly superior autobiographical memory

Able to remember every event /thing that happened in their life which may indicate that there are biological processes for superior memory storage.

Alzheimers Disease

a chronic brain disease that gradually erodes an individual's memory, intellectual abilities, and personality.(cause of dementia)

• Storage processes may be negatively affected by physical impairment and developmental limitations

Retrograde Amnesia

memory loss for previously-formed episodic memories, often caused by damage to the cerebral cortex.

Anterograde amnesia

memory loss caused by the inability to store new memories, often caused by damage to the hippocampus.

• Case Study of HM→ helped cognitive psychologists understand the role of the hippocampus in forming declarative memories(Cortex first gets sensory data and gives it to the hippocampus(memory) which then gives it to the cortex for permanent storage.)

Infantile Amnesia

The inability of individuals to recall memories from the first few years of life, typically from birth to around 3-4 years old. Storage processes may be negatively affected.

retrieval

occurs through recall or recognition.

recall

remembering without cues. more cognitive effort than recognition + an active process.

Recognition

remembering that relies on retrieval cues.(less effort matching process).

Memory retrieval can be enhanced…

when people are in the same environmental space, mood, or physical state as they were when they encoded the information to be retrieved.