psych 258 -midterm #2 (notes)

phonological store

passively stores speech sounds

articualtory rehersal process

actively processes items to prevent decay

• the voice u hear in minds ear when ur repeaitng soemthing repeatedly

visual cache

stores form and color information

inner scribe

handles spatial and movement information; reherses visual information; also transfers information in visual cache to central executive

central executive

• controls attention

• coordinates other components

• transfers information to/ from LTM

• time sharing of multiple tasks → manages the switching of activating the specific rules depending on the task

  • ex. generating random numbers is worse while alternating reciing alphabet and counting

episodic buffer

interfaces with episodic LTM storage (holds personal life experiences)

• integrates information into a single complex structure ore experience

fluid systems

includes attnetion and temporary sstorage, whereas crystallized systems accumulate long-term knowledge

pros and cons of WM

• conceptualizes active processing and transient storage of information

• can be applied to complex tasks

• role of central executive is vague

• it is unclear how components interact

primacy effect

better recall for items at beginning of list; greater rehersal causes transfer to LTS

recencey effect

better recall of items at end of list, which were still in STS; mental math (recall delay) affected recency only

explicit memory (declarative memory)

consious, intentional remembering of knowledge or an event

• things u can pull from long term store and put it into words

recall

reporducing preiously encountered information from memory

recognition

identifying previously learned information (ex. multiple choice exams)

implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

uncosious retention due to previous expereince

• remember something but u cannot explain or verbalize

repetition priming effect

previous experience with a stimulus facilitates later response to the same (or similiar) experience

episodic memory

memory for events that occured in ur life

• tied to specific learning episode or experience

semantic memory

stores words, concepts, rules, abstract ideas

• general knowledge not tied to any experience

procedural memory

underlies motor and cognitive skills

• ex. doing math, playing chess, riding a bike

dissociaiton effect

one specific ability is affected, but another is not

retrograde amnesia

inability to remember events that occured before a traumatic event

• forget ur pas life- ur episodic memory is impaired

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories of events that occured after a traumatic event

• memory from the past up to the point of injury is intact but cant remeber new things

HM brain damage

bilateral medial temporal lobe resection

• hippoampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala removed

HM memory

able to remember events/ facts in distant past, but had temporally graded retrograde amnesis

• couldnt learn new facts or remember info about events since surgery

• could form new procedural memories→ but no consious recollection of preious trainnig episodes

KC brain damage

closed-head injury → severe damage to MTLs and almst complete bilateral hippocamal loss

• left hemishere lesions to posteriori occipital-temporal and anterior frontal-parietal cortices

KC memory

retrograde amnesia for episodic memory, although semntic knowledge was intact

• also ha anterograde amnesia : no episodic memories formed after the accident → episodic amnesia

• could form new semantic and procedural memories

hippocmapus is not a storage site, but…

important for consolidation of explicit memories (STS to LTS transfer)

what did HM case provide evidence for..

that implicit memory is dissociated from explicit memory

what did KC case provide evidence for..

that within explicit memory, semantic memory is dissociated from episodic memory

levles of processing theory

shallow (structural; appearnace of a word)→ intermediate (phonemic; based on sound of a word)→ deep (semantic; based on menaing of a word)

maintenace rehersal

repetitive processing

• ex. repeating a phone number over and over

elaborative rehersal

more meaninful processing, relating itme to other knowledge

• ex. grouping digits in a phone number ito meaningful patterns

• may work by organizing, connecting, or integrating memories

transfer-appropriate processing

match between encoding processes and type of test

• e. dring or walking a route several times helps u remember it better than just look at a map

self reference effect

memory is enhanced by relating items to one’s self

• surpassed semantic encoding group

generation effect

memory is enhanced for items that are actively produced

• self generated cues lead to better remembering

when are cues most helpful..

when they were both compatible with the target word and dsitinctive

• e.g., given the noun coat, the cue jacket is compatible and distinctive, but wool is not (it may cue other nouns like fabric and sheep)

effect of testing (via retrieval pracice)

improves long-term retention

how does testing effect work

• additional (focused) presentation of material

• retrieval irself is a memory modifier, with increasing retrieval edemand/effort enahancing later retention

• processes applied during an initial rest are also used during the final test, resulting in positive transfer (i.e. a practice effect)

encoding specificity principle

if conditions at retrival match those at encoding, memory is enhanced

context-dependent meory

memory enhancement that occurs when retrieval context matches encoding context

studying in a varietyof contexts lead to…

better remembering, greater stability and generalizability of knowledge→ build a robust set of knowledge that isnt tied to specific location

what are the different internal states that can impcat memory

• state-dependent memory

• mood dependence

• mood congruence

state-depednent memory

if internal state during retrieval matches that duriig encoding, memory may be enhanced

mood dependence

when mood at retrieval matched the mood at encoding, memory is facilitated→ however, the memories themselves are typically not emotional in nature

mood congruence

mood at retrieval influences the kind of memories retrived

• ex. in a sad mood, youre more likely to remember sad events

consolidation

process of integrating new info into stored knowledge

practice effects

more intial practice leads to less time to relearn list of nonsense syllables the next day (savings)

kinds of training

massed practice and dsitributed practice

massed practice

information studied repeatedly at one time

dsitributed practice (aka spaced repetition)

information studied repeatedly in seperate csessions over a longer period of time

spacing effect

dsitibuted practice produces better remembering than massed practice

what concepts show why spacing effect works

multiple encoding contexts theory and REM theory

mutiple encoding contexts theory

multiple study sessions lead to multiple types of encoding, thus greater chance of matching during test conditions

REM theory

the more rapid eye movement sessions following study sessions, the more consolidation that occurs

interleaving enhances…

inductive learning of concepts and categories

• works by rewuring learner to differentiate among related concepts, or to retrieve the correct startegy for each different type of problem

what did they ocnlcude abt how REM sleep imoroves learning various things

due to sychornous brain activity, neurnal play (reactivation of neuraal pattern that are similar to those expereinced during waking), changes inneuromodualtores, or regionla brain activation

effects of sleep overall

• slee deprivation reduces working memory by 38%

• sleep increases performance of procedural memories, like motor skill learning

• daytimenaps enhance decalrative memories, maze learning, comlex visual stimuli, paired words)

sleep actively promotes…

processing of information leanred during wakefulness

• and important for memory enhancement

dual trace hypothesis

memory formation (synaptic consolidation) requires 2 processes:

• short term→ experience causes activity in certain neural circuits

• longer term → conitnous or repeated activity creates stabl change in nervous system

  • *found in LTP

long-term potnetiation (LTP)

electrically induced changes in neural resonse

• one neuron makes it easier for the next neuron to fire

what kinfs of neural change were found to support learning

• increased neurotransmitter released

• increased size of postsynaptic region

• more synapses formed

standard model of systems consolidation

initially, incming information activates cortical areas (ex. for vision, audition,etc.), and is integrated and coordinated by the hippocampus into a memory trace

• states that onsolidation occurs via reactivation→ hippocampus reacativates connections to cortex associated with memory

after repeated reactivation, long lasting cortical interconections are…. (according to standard model of systems consolidation

• stengthened and/or new connections established

• new memories are integrated with existing ones

• activity in the hipocampus is no longer required

what did standard modelof systems consolidation predict about retrograde amnesia

due to damaged hippoampus, it shpuld be temporally graded → memories formed closest in tiem to traumatic event are most likely to be lost

• since more recent memories are most vulnerable and rely on hippocampus

multiple trace theory of consolidation

proposes that semantic memories stored in the cortex gradully become independent of the hippocampus

• while episodic emories involve the hippocampus, whch provides spatial and temporal context (where and when)

• predicts that complete ledions of hippocampus should impair all episodic memories (whether recent or remote)

how to reconcile the standard model of memory cnsolidation and the multiple trace theory?

although cortex stores most of memory independely, the hipocampus is neccessary for retrieving the contextually rich, episodic details of that same event

damagae to hippocampus results in…

impairment of episodic mmeory rather than working memory

autobiographical memory

a form of long-term memory, that comprises the self-knowledge, episodes and experiences of a persons life

• crucial to our self-conception, helping us to understand who we are and how we elate to the world

what does autobiogrpahical memory utilize:

the 2 primary typesof declarative memory:

• personal semantic memories→ facts and ideas abt ourselves

• episodic memory → memory of events we have experienced

ow is autobiographical memory organized in tieres:

• lifetime periods → distingusihable time periods nin life

• general events → represent repeated events or a sequence of related events

• event-specific knowledge → details about a single event

*knowledge is used by the working self

working self

current perosnal goals and self-images

• ex. this experiene makes me an excellent candidate for this job

cjildhood/infantile amnesia

adults inability to remember events before ages 3-5

• recall of memories over the lifespan falls off before age 8 compared to other periods

contemporary theories of infantile amnesia

• hippocampus (involved in storage of long-term memories) not sufficiently mature before age 2

• incomplete language development is a barrier to encoding autobiographical memories (include episodic and semantic components)

• episodic memories are tied to ones sense of self, which develops later in life

what did bahrick and wittinger find with the study of retention of names and faces of people’s high school classmates

did poorly in free recall but during ceued recall such as thorugh name and picture recognition was significantly better

• evidence for permastore

permastore

very long-term storage that can last ur entire life

• remembering people u went to high school with

distinctiveness can help make…

the relationships between cue and irem unique

• unique item acitvates memories in LTS and reduces interference

primary dsitinctiveness

incongruity defined with respect to the immediate context

isolation effect (von restorff effect)

a distinctive stimulus is more likelu to be remmebered

• bottom up effect

  • ex. artichoke

secondary distinctiveness

incongruity is defined with respect topast experience

• top-down process

  • ex. first day of university, first time ina big city

orthographic distinctiveness

word having unusual letter and spelling patterns

• better remembered than more typical words

  • ex. llama, khaki, afghan → due to unusual lower-case word shape

emotional distinctiveness

emotional events are remembered in greater detail

flasbulb memories

detailed, vivid recollection of circumstances surrounding about a surprising/emtional event

• uniquely involves the amygdala (due to emoti

• effectlinked to the release of adrenalune, casuing greater amygdala activity onal context of memory)

what connection did they find with motion and memory

emotions appeared to enhance memory, but memory was not perfect

• ex. more likely to rmember soemthing if emotionaly significant

visual illusions

mismatches between perceptand objective stimulus

• didnt perceive reality correctly

• sensory data avialable

  • persisits even when we know our interpretation is icorrect

memory illusions

erroneous judgements based on memories

• sensory data no longer available

• difficult to become aware of; we often cannot compare our memory to the actual event

repression (freud)

active submerging of a painful memory without consious awareness

• considered this to be the most powerful defense mechanism used by the eego to reduce anxiety

false memory syndrme

memory of traumatic exeprience which is obectively false, but in which the person strongly belives it to be true

• can be elicited by ‘recovered memory therapy’

reovered memory therapy

a therapist encourages a client to identify repressed memories, despite the lack of evidence or memory of any past abuse

• psychotherapists ask leading questions that elicit compliance with generation of fals ememory

• this approach can cause false memories to be implanted

• led to memory wars

waht did loftus and palmer findabt determing car speed from a video

participants were prone to suggestibility depdneing on the wording in the qstion

• if a more extreme/ violent word was used, participants desribed the car as going faster

misinformation effect

exposure to misleading information after witnessing an event can lead people to believe that they have seen or experienced something they never did

what are th possible causes of misinformation effect

• overwriting → misleading infomation replaces memory trace of actual experience

• misinformation acceptance → people belive the post-event information is true because questioner is a person of authority

• source confusion → memory of question is confused with memory of experience

reality morning

processes by which people discriminate between memories derived from perception and those that were reflectively generated via thought, imagination, dreams, and fantasy

source monitoring

process of making attributions abt the source of memories

• memories arent tagged with source info

• attribution occurs during retrieval; may be incorrect

source monitring errors

• source confusion or source misattribution

• source failure

• cryptoamnesia

source condusion

beliving the source of a memory is different thatn what it actually is

source failure

not remembering the source of a memory

cryptomnesia (‘hidden memory’)

remembering a previously forgotten memory, but beliving it to be new and original

source monitoring is affected by…

• contextual information

• sensory infrmation

• fewer cogntive operations

contextual information

ex. where were u when u last had ur wallet

sensory information

ex,. do u remember the feel of ur wallet when u put it into ur pocket

cogntive operations

memory retrieved with little effort

• ex. remembering where u put ur wallet