Test 4 [Final] Review (Set 1)

Emotion and Cognition, Reisburg Chapter 10 & Language PPT

What is the role of the amygdala in emotion and what is the significance of its nearby connections?

The role of the amygdala in emotion is processing emotional stimuli. The thalamus and hypothalamus are the nearby structures within this process.

Define Emotion

short duration, synchronized responses (can include bodily responses, facial expression, subjective evaluation)

Define Mood

diffuse affective state of low intensity and relatively long duration

Define Attitudes

relatively enduring affecting colored beliefs, preferences and predispositions

Define Motivation

propensity to action that is a component of some affective responses.

Differentiate direct vs. indirect assessment of emotion?: One is using direct questions and introspection. The other is psychophysiological.

Which brain areas are involved in direct assessment?

These are affected by cultural conventions and they rely on the hippocampus

Which brain areas are involved in indirect assessment?

Creasing ANS activity. So there’s the parasympathetic and sympathetic branch.

Methods under each [in/direct assessment] are _____ conductance (“looking for increase or decrease in sweatiness”) and _____ reflex (“we blink harder when we are more afraid”)

skin, startle

Both methods [in/direct assessment] under the parasympathetic and _______ branch rely on the amygdala—they’re _______ autonomic responses (not as conscious)

sympathetic, conditioned

These autonomic responses [in/direct assessment] are indicative of _____ vs _____ emotion systems

conscious, unconscious

How is emotion learned through Classical Conditioning?

Fear conditioning (pairing a neutral stimulus with an aversive or fearful event), autonomic conditioning (bodily responses such as arousal), and evaluative conditioning (expressed through presence of attitude).

How is emotion learned through Operant Conditioning?

[Reward or punishment]. Mesolimbic dopamine pathway reward circuitry is involved, activation of striatum by reward. Increasing the behavior is a reward, decreasing it is a punishment.

An important factor of operant conditioning is _____ of reinforcement, intermittent reinforcement bringing slower learning but greater resistance to extinction

schedules

How is emotion learned through Observational Learning?

[Instruction] verbal communication vs. [observation] Bobo Doll.

Observation might be effective because of ____ _____ activity

mirror neuron

Define Mirror Neurons

neurons that are premotoredly active as a result of seeing another’s movement.

Define Mere Exposure

positive preference or attitude is acquired through simple repetition of a stimulus.

Define Mere exposure effect

it’s based on familiarity, and so only the repeated presentation of the stimulus is necessary.

How does arousal influence memory?

when we are in an emotional state, we are more likely to remember that event as compared to when we are not in an emotional state.

How does stress influence memory?

prolonged stress and extreme arousal can impair memory performance. Mild to moderate arousal enhances memory performance, but if the arousal responses is prolonged or extreme, performance [memory] suffers.

How does mood influence memory?

through the mood congruent memory effect and flashbulb memory

Define Mood congruent memory effect

it’s easier to recall events and information that are emotionally congruent with your current mood state (i.e. if you’re sad, you’re going to think of sad things)

Define Flashbulb memory

for surprising and consequential events as the phrase reflects the vivid and detailed nature of the recollections reported (i.e. during 9/11, people reported seeing television pictures of two planes striking the trade enter but there wasn’t any video evidence until after the attack)

What are the NAMES of all six properties of language?

Communicative, arbitrarily symbolic, regularly structured, structured at multiple levels, generative and productive, dynamic

Define the COMMUNICATIVE property of language

one or more persons who share a language

Define the ARBITRARILY SYMBOLIC property of language

creates an arbitrary (the words that we use don’t necessarily sound like the things we’re talking about) between a symbol and its referent

Define the REGULARLY STRUCTURED property of language

only particularly patterned arrangements of symbols have meaning | different arrangements of different meanings

Define the STRUCTURED AT MULTIPLE LEVELS property of language

the structure of language can be analyzed at multiple levels (i.e. sounds, meaning units, words, phrases)

Define the GENERATIVE AND PRODUCTIVE property of language

the limits of a linguistic structure, language users can produce novel utterances and the possibilities for creating new utterances are virtually limitless (To know a language is to know how to create it)

Define the DYNAMIC property of language

Languages constantly evolve

Human language differs from animal language because human language is not just made up of gestures and non-verbal communication, but a ______ structure that has ______ and morphemes and _____ and discourse’s.

hierarchical, phonemes, syntax

Define Phonemes

basic unit of spoken language

Define Morphemes

smallest unit of meaning

Define Syntax

rules that govern the combination of phrases and sentences

Define Semantics

the meaning of words

Define Pragmatics

words used in different contexts

Define Phrase-structure rules

the overall organization of the sentence.

Define Discourse

beyond level of sentence

What do language errors tell us about language production and development?

Language errors about language production and development tell us that psycholinguists learn from mistakes.

What is Noam Chomsky's view of Psycholinguists?

Language has much underlying uniformity. The underlying structure is often more closely related to the meaning of a sentence than are the surface characteristics. Thus, two different sentences can mean the same thing. (“Susie greedily ate the apple” vs “The apple was eaten greedily by Susie”)

Chomsky wondered how one _____ could prompt the only right response with no other context (i.e. a table by itself cannot make someone say ‘table’ only, because there is nothing about the stimulus that makes the response come to be. What if you see a little piece of the table? How will you know to still say table?)

stimulus

Chomsky also emphasized _____ (“You’ve got a brain, buddy”)

cognition

Language is not a closed system, but a ______ one. Thus, there can be endless new sentences, despite a limited number of morphemes and phonemes

generative

Within the underlying structures are _____ common to all languages, and these may reflect innate _______ principles of cognition. Thus, language structure is innate and we should be able to demonstrate this cross-culturally. (i.e. the fact that we use nouns and verbs shows that we are “born” with this

it’s an innate principle)

What is the Cognitive Functional Approach?

Emphasizes that the function of human language in everyday life is to communicate meaning to other individuals. Cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, affect comprehension and production

Define Surface Structure

that part of the actual sentence that can be segmented and labeled by conventional grammar (i.e. “What I’m saying”)

Define Deep structure

an underlying form that contains much of the information necessary to meaning (i.e. “What I really want to get at”)

What are the five stages of postnatal development?

cooing, babbling, one-word, vocabulary, two-word, basic adult structure

Define the COOING stage of language development

2-4 months, vowel like sounds

Define the BABBLING stage of language development

middle of first year, consonant vowel combinations and gestures are starting to appear

Define the ONE WORD stage of language development

Understand 50 words at 5 months, can’t say 50 words until 18 months

Define the VOCABULARY SPURT stage of language development

200 words at 2 years

Define the TWO WORD stage of language development

18-24 months. Heavy use of gesture, tone and context. Telegraphic speech, but basic grammar.

What is the final stage of language development?

Basic adult structure

Define Specific Language Impairment

normal muscle movement for language production has difficulty learning and using language.

The notion of a critical period comes from understanding Chomsky’s ______ ______ _____ (LAD), in where the brain has an innate, automatic acquiring of language when people are really young

language acquisition device

______ language learning may happen best during this {LAD} critical learning period

statistical

Define Creole

Similar to a pidgin, but is more grammatically accurate (this happens when children are surrounded by their environment and are listening to the adults around them).

Define Pidgin

a sampler from languages to get by (i.e. “Pomme now” --> Merging English and French to get by in France)

What are some differences between a spoken and written language?

Visual vs. auditory (spread in space vs. in time) (i.e. when we’re reading, we do some silent ‘repeating the words out loud’), Readers can re-scan writing while listeners rely on WM, Writing is more standardized with fewer errors, Writing shows clearer boundaries between words, Adult readers learn new words more quickly in written form than in spoken form

What are the stages of SPEECH production?

Plan the gist, Plan the structure of the sentence without actual words (we tend to use the structure of the previous sentence spoken, as well as syntactic priming), Select specific word wanted (narrowing to a specific version of the word as well), Articulate the sentence.

The steps in language production tend to _____ in time. WM's role in language production is the holding, _______, and monitoring linguistic info during ______ and articulation

overlap, manipulating, formulation

Define syntactic priming: following the syntax of what's spoken by other in conversation

What are the stages of WRITING Production?

Plan the gist, generate sentences, revise.

When do the stages of writing production happen?

while we're writing more than when we're speaking.

“It takes much longer to _____ than to _____, and we need to be able to spell those words when writing, where in speaking we don’t need to think about spelling”

write, speak

Writing differs from speaking in that it tends to be done more often in ______ with less ______. It also tends to be revised

isolation, interaction

What are some consequences of learning a second language?

Second language fluency depends in part on age of onset (and attitude more than aptitude), Bilinguals manage attention to two languages simultaneously, No impact on working memory capacity (bilingual people even from childhood aren’t shown to be better at WM capacity), Somewhat lower fluency in both languages (matters of small degree).

What is speech segmentation?

When a stream of speech is “sliced” into constituent words, and within words, phonemes

Why is speech segmentation necessary for speech production?

Speech segmentation is necessary for speech perception because it allows us to know when words “end” and when “words” begin, when in reality there may not be any pauses between words (i.e. “My name is…” [it’s been shown that there’s no pauses in between these three words, yet we hear that there are). In languages that we don’t understand, this illusion is broken and may explain why foreign languages sound so fast

What is categorical perception?

People are much better hearing the differences between categories of sounds than they are at hearing the variations within a category of sounds. (i.e. You’re sensitive to the differences between a [g] and a [k] sound, but have a hard time distinguishing a [p] sound from a different [p] sound.

What are reasons that it is difficult to give an exact count of the number of words in someone’s vocabulary?

New words are created all the time. (i.e. ‘sponcon’ refers to ‘sponsored content’

Define Generativity

the capacity to create an endless series of new combinations, all built from a small set of fundamental units.

What does it mean to say that phrase-structure rules are “descriptive” and not “prescriptive”?

Phrase structure rules are descriptive and not prescriptive because the English vocabulary has changed over time (i.e. No-one says “Thee” anymore, and anyone who does may be seen as odd. Same thing with saying “they” and referring to one person rather than two people with the change of gender views).

Define Prescriptive Rules

rules describing how something is supposed to be (i.e. “ain’t” isn’t a word)

Define Descriptive Rules

rules characterizing the language as it’s ordinarily used by fluent speakers and listeners.

How does sentence parsing occur?

Sentence parsing occurs when people try to figure out the role of each word the moment they hear it rather than waiting until the sentence is finished

Define Garden Path sentences and how they are interpreted

You’re initially led to one interpretation but the interpretation turns out to be wrong. They can be interpreted in a multitude of ways that are most likely going to be wrong because you need information to determine the whole sentences’ meaning---it’s better off to remain neutral about the main verb until you have the information that gives you the context about the main verb.

How does knowledge impact sentence parsing?

Knowledge impacts sentence parsing by people trying to parse sentences in a way that makes sense to them [their knowledge about the world’.

What is Prosody’s role in interpreting sentences?

Prosody can direct the listener’s attention by specifying the focus or theme of a sentence, clarify a sentence that would otherwise be entirely confusing.

Define Prosody

These pitch and rhythm cues

How is pragmatics is central to communication between people?

pragmatics are rules that govern how people actually use language. The ‘maxim of relation’, says that speakers should say things that are relevant to the conversation. (i.e. If you ask someone what color their eyes are, and the other person says that their left eye is blue, you’ll assume that they specified their left eye for a reason, which indicates that their right eye is a different color). (People also draw on common ground (i.e. world knowledge) when talking during a conversation so they’re less confused. (I.e. “I’m leaving you”, says that woman. The man says “Who is he?” to indicate cheating).)

Define Broca’s Aphasia

People can understand language but cannot write or speak fluently.

Define Wernicke’s Aphasia

People can talk freely and fluently, but say very little.

How does animal language differ from human language?

Animal language differs from human language by the naturally occurring communication systems in animals being very limited (small vocabularies and little information that corresponds to the rules of syntax. Animals also don’t have the capacity to produce or understand an unending variety of new sentences).

How does language and animals fit within the case of Kanzi?

In the case of Kanzi, the abilities of the bonobo are well below a 3- or 4-year-old child. Kanzi hadn’t mastered the distinction between present, past, and future tense despite every human child learning this basic aspect of language.

How does language and animals fit within the case of 'Wolf Children'?

In “Wolf Children”, the children that were raised by wolves acted like wolves. They didn’t speak English and instead howled, and they had other behaviors that corresponded with wolf-ish behaviors. This shows that learning a language may depend on both human genome and human environment.

Linguistic relativity and evidence regarding it (also in class)

relation between language and directing attention.

Define Linguistic Relativity

a claim that says people who speak different languages inevitably think differently. Whorf believed that language has a direct impact on cognition, and so if a language has led you to think certain ways, you’ll forever think in those ways. (That means there are some ideas an English speaker can contemplate but a Japanese speaker cannot).

Language is just one of the factors that guides what you pay _____ to. Specific word choice and directions can direct your attention, which may cancel out your language’s natural “________” to what it generally pays attention to (i.e. for English speakers describing an event, our language typically requires a name and so we pay attention to the person who caused the event more often than not

for Spanish speakers, their language doesn’t require them to think about the actor, so they typically ignore that. But that will change if you tell a Spanish speaker to ‘pay attention to the actor’)

What are the consequences of bilingualism?

Bilinguals are able to manage two languages simultaneously. There is no impact on working memory capacity (bilinguals aren’t shown to have better WMC), but there is a somewhat lower fluency in both languages for the bilingual (matters of a small degree).