E2: The Civil War

What was the role of the Czech Legion in causing the Civil War?

The Czechs mistrusted the Bolsheviks and there were clashes with local Bolshevik soviets along the Trans-Siberian railway. When the Bolsheviks tried to disarm them, the Czechs resisted and took control of large sections of the railway (the main route to the east) and large parts of western Siberia. Substantial White forces grew up around them.

How did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk cause the Civil War?

Brest-Litovsk was seen throughout Russia as a "shameful peace". No other political party would have acceded to such terms; indeed no leading Bolshevik was prepared to put their name on it. Half the human, industrial and agricultural resources of Nicholas II's empire were lost. This encouraged patriotic Russians to join anti-Bolshevik forces and made civil war almost inevitable.

Describe the political causes of the Civil War.

By the time the war began in earnest in spring 1918, it was clear that the Bolsheviks wanted to run Russia as a one-party state. They had alienated other socialist groups (S.R.s and Mensheviki) as well as the liberals and more conservative right-wing elements in society. It was the Bolsheviks against the rest.

What were the four main forces of the Whites in the Civil War?

-Yudenich's army in the north-west; a small force which attacked the Reds out of Estonia

-The Omsk reactionary government of mainly rightists (monarchists or supporters of a military dictatorship) under the nominal leader of Admiral Kolchak. It controlled an extensive area of Siberia

-The Komuch (the Committee of the Members of the Constituent Assembly) was composed mainly of S.R.s, who claimed to be the legitimately elected government. They were based at Samara on the River Volga

-The Southern Volunteer Army formed by Generals Kornilov (recently escaped from prison) and Alekseev. It was based in the south, on the River Don. Thousands of army fficers flocked to join them, as well as Kadets and other liberals. Both generals died in 1918 and the army was taken over by General Anton Denikin.

Who were the Reds?

The Bolsheviks. Their strength was their one clear aim: to stay in power. The Workers' & Peasants' Red Army was formed from Kronstadt sailors, Red Guards, workers who volunteered and soldiers from the former imperial army.

Who were the Whites?

They were liberals, tsarists, nationalists, separatists, Socialist Revolutionaries and other moderate socialists. Their only common cause was anti-Bolshevism. Many wanted a military dictatorship. Others wanted the Tsar back, others wanted the Constituent Assembly. The Whites were deeply divided and internal fighting was not uncommon. It was very difficult for, example, Socialist Revolutionaries to fight alongside Tsarists and monarchists ("rightists"). 4 White armies were particularly significant.

Who were the Greens?

They were peasant armies often made up of deserters. Most Greens were concerned with protecting their own area from other marauding armies. Some Green armies were little more than groups of bandits who raided and looted their local neighbourhood. Probably the most famous of the Green armies was that of Nestor Makhno, an anarchist in the Ukraine. Makhno was a skilled guerrilla who, at various times, fought with the Whites, the Reds and the Germans but became a Bolshevik ally. The Ukrainians, like many of the peasant armies, were fighting for their independence.

What happened when Yudenich's army reached the outskirts of Petrograd in October 1919?

They were turned back by larger Bolshevik forces.

Against which two groups did Makhno's Insurgent Army successfully use guerrilla warfare against?

The Reds and the Whites.

How did Makhno's Insurgent Army challenged the Bolshevik centralised state?

It encourage the growth of communes and soviets for peasants to run their own affairs without any central direction.

By which group was Mahkno's Insurgent Army strongly supported?

The peasant population in the Ukraine.

Who did Makhno's Insurgent Army fight for towards the end of the war?

As an irregular division for the Reds.

What happened to Makhno's Insurgent Army after the war?

As soon as the war was won, the Bolsheviks crushed his peasant-anarchist movement, although it proved no easy task.

How were Kolchak's forces initially very successful up to and during June 1918?

They built up on the successes of the Czech Legion and linked up with it.

They took Kazan and Samara.

Why did Kolchak's advance fall apart?

-Determined counter-attacks by the Red Army

-Internal quarrels and apathy among the Czechs

-Power struggles within the Socialist Revolutionaries, who staged revolts that weakened Kolchak's army

What was the situation of Kolchak's army by autumn 1919?

The Reds had turned Kolchak's advance into a long retreat throughout which they harassed his army.

When was Kolchak captured and shot?

1920

What was the Czech Legion's role in the Civil War?

They linked up with Kolchak's army and fought for the Whites for a while, but after the declaration of Czech independence in October 1918 it was weakened by mutinies and desertion and largely withdrew from the fighting.

Which ethnic minority did Denikin's army have a large contingent of?

Don Cossacks.

Why did the army initially make ground across the Don region?

It intended to join with Kolchak's army.

When did Denikin's army begin besieging Tsaritsyn?

Summer 1918.

What was the significance of the siege of Tsaritsyn?

It was a key city under the command of Stalin. The Bolsheviks had to hold the city at all costs to prevent the southern and eastern armies from linking up and to protect vital grain supplies that passed through Tsaritsyn en-route to Bolshevik-held cities to the north and west. The successful defence of Tsaritsyn became a heroic story in Bolshevik mythology and the city was later re-named "Stalingrad" in Stalin's honour.

In what way was Denikin's summer 1919 offensive spectacularly successful?

It came within 320 km of Moscow by October.

How was Denikin's 1919 summer offensive repulsed?

Trotsky organised a ferocious counter-attack, forcing a hasty and panic-stricken White retreat. The southern White army was pushed right back into the Crimean peninsula.

Who was Denikin replaced by?

Wrangel.

What happened to the southern White army under Wrangel in 1920?

They held out for much of that year but had to be evacuated by British and French ships in November.

What was Trotsky's overall role in inspiring men during the Civil War?

Trotsky was a superb leader, able to inspire and rally men and personally brave, taking his special forces to the parts of the Front where the fighting was fiercest. Discipline was very tough in the Red Army and the death penalty was used frequently and effectively, as unwilling peasant conscripts knew that certain death lay before them if they retreated in battle.

When was Trotsky made Commissar for War and how did he change the Army upon his appointment?

In 1918, when the Army was on the point of disintegration. He restored discipline and professionalism to what was then called the "Workers' and Peasants' Red Army" and turned it into an effective fighting force. He re-organised the army along strict hierarchical lines and brought back thousands of former tsarist officers to train and command army units, ensuring their loyalty by holding their families hostage.

What was the Party reaction to Trotsky's re-organisation of the Army?

The return to a traditional army was resented by other leading Bolsheviks, especially Stalin and Zinoviev. They had a different concept of a revolutionary army: one which was more like a militia and certainly not one with tsarist officers in charge. Trotsky only managed to get his way with the support of Lenin, who saw that it was the only solution, given the state of the army and the urgency of the situation.

Through which method did Trotsky try to placate the Party and ensure the loyalty of the officers in his organisation of the Army?

He attached a political commissar to each army unit. The job of the commissar was to watch and report on the actions of the officers and make sure they were politically correct. They also fed back useful information to the central headquarters.

How did Trotsky change discipline in the Army?

Ranks, saluting and pay differentials were re-introduced. He also re-established harsh military discipline, bringing back the death penalty for a range of offences. He thought this was essential for making the forces fight.

How did the soldiers react to Trotsky's changes in the army?

The termination of soldiers' committees which dominated army units and the election of officers by soldiers did not go down well; neither did the re-introduction of ranks, saluting and pay differentials.

What was Trotsky's overall organisational role in the Civil War?

His strengths were energy, passion and organisational abilities. Trotsky was not much of a military strategist and the key military decisions were taken by others. His chief contribution was as the person in overall charge, holding things together and making the organisation work effectively; this was no small achievement in Russia between 1918-1920.

What was Trotsky's role on the front lines?

Travelling in a specially equipped train, he rushed to the points where the fighting was fiercest to provide support- although sometimes this involved his special troops making sure that Red forces did not retreat. His presence seemed to make a real difference and he genuinely seemed able to inspire men in a way that other leaders, especially White leaders, could not. His train was also very important in that it carried uniforms and supplies because when people deserted they took their weapons and uniforms with them, so even in the later stages of the war the Red Army was often poorly equipped, had a ragtag appearance and was short of ammunition.

Who decided to save Petrograd when it was under threat from Yudenich and how?

Trotsky. The capital had been moved to Moscow and Lenin felt that they would have to give up Petrograd, the "home of the revolution". Trotsky disagreed, raced off with his train and, after fierce fighting, turned Yudenich's army away.

Briefly describe the deaths of the Tsar and his family.

Nicholas, along with his family and servants, was shot on 17 July 1918 in Ekaterinburg in the Urals. The whole family were shot and their bodies, having been drenched in acid, had been thrown into a disused mineshaft and later buried.

What did Lenin and Sverdlov (Party Secretary 1918-1919) claim about the deaths of the Tsar and his family?

It had bee carried out by the local soviet against their wishes.

Who does the evidence suggest probably ordered the deaths of the Tsar and his family?

Central government.

Why might Lenin have wanted to distance himself from the deaths of the Tsar and his family?

Lenin did not wish to antagonise the Germans at this point so he probably wanted to suggest it had nothing to do with him. Alexandra, the Tsar's wife, was German and the Tsar was a blood relation to the other monarchs in Europe- for example, he was cousin to the German Kaiser. The stories abot the possible survival of some of the Tsar's children may have been allowed to flourish for similar reasons: the Bolshevik leaders did not wish to accept responsibility in the international community for this horrific act.

How did the leadership of the Reds contribute to the Red victory?

-Trotsky was a superb leader, able to inspire and rally men and personally brave, taking his special forces to the parts of the Front where the fighting was fiercest. He was able to rally and inspire men

-Discipline was very tough in the Red Army and the death penalty was used frequently and effectively, as unwilling peasant conscripts knew that certain death lay before them if they retreated in battle.

How did the geographical advantages of the Reds contribute to Red victory?

-The Bolsheviks held the central area which included Petrograd and Moscow, and they moved their capital to Moscow, at the hub of the railway network, making it easier to transport men and munitions to battle fronts

-The central area was heavily populated (much more so than White-held areas) and so the Bolsheviks were able to conscript large numbers to fight. Red armies often vastly outnumbered their White opponents

-This area also contained the main armament factories in Russia, so the Bolsheviks could carry on producing war materials. Much of the artillery, rifles and other military equipment of the Russian army fell into Bolshevik hands.

How did the geographical disadvantages of the Whites contribute to the Red victory?

Whites were scattered around the edges of the central area, separated by large distances, making communications difficult, especially moving men and weapons and co-ordinating the attacks of different White armies. They had no telephone links; they had to use officers on horseback to convey messages.

How did the unity and organisation of the Reds contribute to Red victory?

-The Bolsheviks had a single, unified command structure

-Trotsky organised the Red Army into an effective fighting force and a better organised army than the Whites.

How did the unity and organisation of the Whites contribute to Red victory?

-The Whites were made up of different groups who had entirely different aims and beliefs-they could not agree on whether they were fighting for monarchism, republicanism or the Constituent Assembly. This made it hard for them to co-operate and impossible to develop a political strategy. They were also split by their views on national minorities

-They had little chance of developing a co-ordinated military strategy. Often the White generals would not work together because they didn't like or trust each other. For example, other generals were suspicious of Kolchak's motives and intentions.

How did White leadership contribute to Red victory?

-White leaders were, on the whole, second rate. Several were cruel and treated their men with contempt. They reminded the soldiers of the worst aspects of the Russian army and tsarist rule. Therefore there was little natural warmth or support for the White leaders. Many soldiers deserted

-The level of indiscipline and corruption in the White armies was extraordinary. Denikin said "I can do nothing with my army. I am glad when it carries out my combat orders". In Omsk, uniforms and munitions supplied by foreign interventionist governments were sold on the black market.

How did support for the Reds contribute to Red victory?

The Bolsheviks had a core support group of some workers and soldiers but did not enjoy widespread popular support. War Communism and the way they managed the cities and food supply saw to that. But urban workers and peasants wanted to protect the gains of 1917 and the Reds seemed to offer them their best chance of doing this. The Whites were associated with the old system of government.

How did the Whites' support contribute to Red victory?

-The support of the peasants was crucial since they supplied the main body of soldiers for both sides. They had little love for either side and were just as inclined to desert from Red as from White armies into which they had been conscripted (it is estimated that 1 million deserted the Red Army in 1918 and nearly 4 million by 1921). But Lenin had legitimised their right to land while the Whites made it clear that land would be restored to its former owners. Kolchak even gave estates to landlords who had not owned land before the Revolution. So peasants were inclined to support the Reds

-Whites lost the support of nationalist groups. White leaders wanted to restore the Russian empire with its pre-1917 borders. This antagonised national groups (separatists) such as the Ukrainians and Georgians, who were looking for more autonomy in their affairs or complete independence. Therefore separatists would not support the Whites when White forces were based in their territories.

How did foreign intervention contribute to the Red victory?

This should have worked in the Whites' favour and certainly did bring them supplies and weapons, but it was half-hearted and largely ineffective. It also gave the Bolsheviks a propaganda coup because they could present themselves as the defenders of Russian soil against foreign forces.

How did propaganda contribute to the Red victory?

Both sides used propaganda but the Whites, particularly Denikin, did not see how valuable it was. The Reds used extremely imaginative and powerful images, including:

-The Whites would take away the land from the peasants

-Foreign invaders were supporting the Whites

-The Reds offered a wonderful new society for workers and peasants.

What was the British role in the Civil War?

The British, encouraged by Winston Churchill, the War Secretary, were amongst the most active forces. They sent £100 mil. worth of supplies to the Whites. Churchill saw the Whites as crusaders against Bolshevism and dreaded the spread of Bolshevism to other countries in West Europe. However, within Britain there was substantial opposition to involvement in the Russian Civil War. Lloyd George, the Prime Minister, feared disaffection of war-weary troops and the small but increasingly influential Labour Party believed that Britain shouldn't fight the Russian working class.

What was the French role in the Civil War?

The French were probably the most anti-Bolshevik because French investors had put millions of francs into Russia and the Bolsheviks had nationalised foreign-owned businesses without compensation. But the soldiers were not keen to fight and there were mutinies in the French fleet in the Black Sea.

What was the role of the United States in the Civil War?

The U.S. sent troops to Siberia, especially around Vladivostok, largely to stop Japan annexing land.

What was the Japanese role in the Civil War?

They sent a sizeable force into Siberia around Vladivostok, but they were more interested in annexing territory than fighting the Bolsheviks.

What was the Polish role in the Civil War?

In 1919, Poland hoped to take advantage of the chaotic situation in Russia and to take territory which had once been part of the Polish Empire, and thus initiated the Russo-Polish War of 1919-1921. Poland's troops were initially successful, capturing Kiev in May 1920. But by this time, the Bolsheviks had more or less defeated their opponents in the Civil War and the Polish invasion brought even non-Bolsheviks to the support of the Red banner as Poland was an old enemy. In a daring campaign, Poland was pushed right back to Warsaw. However, eventually, the Reds overstretched their supply lines and, lacking support, were comprehensively defeated by Poland. A settlement was reached in 1921 and under the Treaty of Riga, Russia had to surrender large areas of White Russia and the Ukraine to Poland.

How did the Communist Party increase control of the Soviets?

By having local Communist Party organisations take over control of soviets across Russia at district and local level. Party officials ran the soviets and obeyed party orders above all else. So the soviets became effectively subordinate to the party. Furthermore, from 1919 onwards, the B.C.C. began to appoint its own "trusted" nominees to key positions in soviets that were previously filled by elected members of the soviet.

What was the Politburo?

The Politburo was an inner ruling group of around 7 people at the top of the Communist Party, normally 7-9 senior party leaders. It soon took precedence over the Sovnarkom as the key decision-making body. The Politburo was formed in 1919.

How did the collapse of industry drive the growth of centralisation?

The collapse in industrial output had become critical by the summer of 1918. It was essential to keep certain industries going to fight the Civil War, so the government nationalised industry and brought in under the control of the Vesenkha, which reported directly to the Sovnarkom. Workers, desperate to keep their factories open, literally begged the government to nationalise their workplaces. By the autumn of 1919, ≈ 80% of all enterprises were part of a centrally directed economy.

How did the railways drive the growth of centralisation?

The railway system, which was essential for the war effort and to maintain food supplies to cities, was collapsing and the railway union was dominated by Mensheviks, who simply couldn't be relied on. So transport was taken under direct control.

How did the Civil War drive the growth of centralisation?

The very nature of the Civil War meant that there was little time to carry out consultation with the Soviet and other bodies. Emergency decisions, by their very nature, needed to be taken quickly. So decision-making became more centralised.

Why did the Civil war make the party more centralised and less democratic because of membership?

-The membership had changed, as towards the end of 1919, the party was purged of undesirables and the new members recruited between 1920 and 1922 were mainly of peasant background. Most knew little of Marx and 1917 but joined to improve their life chances and were prepared to do as they were told

-The party had lost its base in the proletarian workforce as many of its earlier urban worker members had gone to fight in the war or join the party bureaucracy. By 1919, 39% of party members were in the army and the majority of workers worked in offices, not factories.

Why did the Civil war make the party more centralised because of the nature of leadership?

-The party became more centralised and hierarchical with the Politburo taking over the decision-making from the ≈ 40-member and unwieldy B.C.C. Orders were passed out from the centre and party members were expected to carry them out

-Discussion and debate declined. In 1917 and in the months afterwards, the party had been characterised by passionate debate, disagreement and splits. But as the Civil War progressed, such debate declined as the need for unity grew

What was the "Red Terror"?

The systematic use of terror to back up the new measures to deal with opposition. The assassination attempt on Lenin prompted the Cheka to launch the Red Terror in the summer of 1918, but this was simply an intensification of what was already happening.

Why was the Red Terror launched?

The Bolsheviks faced opposition from workers who wanted soviets and democracy and the overthrow of the Sovnarkom, anarchists who rejected the authoritarian rule and left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries who were protesting about the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and turned to terrorism, shooting the German ambassador in July 1918, capturing Dzerzhinsky, the head of the Cheka, in May and managing to shoot Lenin in August 1918.

What happened to left-wing political groups immediately after the initiation of the Red Terror?

From June onwards, Socialist Revolutionaries were arrested in large numbers, along with anarchists and other extreme left-wing groups. Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries were excluded from taking part in soviets.

What were the political reasons for War Communism?

For Lenin, it was an extension of class warfare and no different from the waging of the Civil War against external enemies. In fact, the Bolsheviks called it the "internal front". Lenin wanted to squeeze out the counter-revolutionary forces whether they came from the left or right- "Those not being with us are against us". It was a way of whipping the old bourgeois attitudes and any lingering bourgeois power. Terror was an essential component of this.

What was the purpose of the Red Terror?

To terrify all hostile social groups.

Who were the targets of the Red Terror?

Large numbers of workers and peasants, as well as princes and priests, prostitutes, judges, merchants, traders and even children (5% of the population of Moscow prisons in 1920)- all guilty of "bourgeois provocation" or counter-revolution. The problem was that no-one really was sure who the counter-revolutionaries were.

What is estimated to be the number of deaths at the hands of the Cheka in 1918-1920?

300,000.

How was execution used as a punishment in the Red Terror?

It was previously the exception but it became the rule.

What were the Cheka arrests like in the cities?

They were very arbitrary. People were arrested for being near scenes of "bourgeois provocation" or because they were acquaintances of suspects. Many were denounced as counter-revolutionaries following arguments or as a result of vendettas.

Why was the Red Terror possibly worse in the countryside than in the cities?

Local Cheka bosses controlled their own patch and acted as petty tyrants with no court of appeal. Some were very dubious characters who used their position to pursue long-term vendettas against sections of the local community. There was little central control.

How did the Cheka contribute to the enforcement of the economic policies of War Communism?

They were particularly active, helping requisitioning brigades collect grain from the peasants. Quotas were filled even if this left peasants starving. It was little better than theft and some of the brigades were little more than bandits, taking much more than food.

How did the peasants react to the attempts by the Cheka to aid grain requisitioning?

The peasants resisted in a wave of uprisings and attacked the collectors. Bolshevik party officials were murdered. In one village, the 12 members of a brigade were decapitated and their heads were put on poles.

What was the success of Lenin's attempt to ignite class warfare in the villages during the Red Terror?

He tried to encourage the poorer peasants to attack the kulaks but he failed to ignite class warfare in the villages. Thousands of peasants were arrested. In retaliation, the peasants hid their grain and stopped planting for the next season. Wheat harvests went into serious decline.

Why did the Bolsheviks set up concentration and labour camps?

To house all the dissident workers, troublesome peasants and bourgeois saboteurs targeted in the Red Terror.