AP Psychology Learning Terms and Questions

What is a post reinforcement pause?

Break in behavior after reinforcement in fixed interval schedule

Why does a post reinforcement pause typically occur in a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement?

Post reinforcement pauses occur in fixed interval schedules because the subject knows the reinforcement won't occur again for a set period of time.

Continuous

A person is reinforced after every single correct response

Variable Ratio Schedule

A person is reinforced after a random number of correct responses

Fixed Ratio

A person is reinforced after a set number of correct responses

Variable Interval Schedule

A person is reinforced after a random amount of time

Fixed interval schedule

A person is reinforced after a set amount of time

Why are behaviors learned under variable schedules of reinforcement the most difficult to extinguish?

Variable schedule is more difficult to extinguish because it already does not occur after every time the behavior is emitted, so the person/animal being tested is not expecting reinforcement every time. It would take longer for them to understand they are not being reinforced at all.

Why are behaviors learned under continuous reinforcement easiest to extinguish?

Continuous reinforcement is easiest to extinguish because if the reinforcement is occurring after every single correct response as soon as it stops the test subject will notice.

Describe how the cognitive perspective has changed the interpretation of both classical and operant conditioning.

The cognitive perspective influences classical conditioning because the associated learning will depend on the information that the CS provides about the US. The cognitive view holds that learning cannot take place in the absence of reinforcement. The fact that classical conditioning depends on the predictive power of the conditioned stimulus, rather than just association of two stimuli, means that some information processing happens during classical conditioning.

Cognitive processes are also involved in operant conditioning. A response doesn't increase just because satisfying consequences follow the response. People usually think about whether the response caused the consequence. If the response did cause the consequence, then it makes sense to keep responding the same way. Otherwise, it doesn't.

You are a behavior therapist treating a person who has a phobia towards rats. How would you treat this person? Include the terms reciprocal inhibition, systematic desensitization, modeling, and an anxiety hierarchy. Describe how the procedure uses classical conditioning and observational learning.

I would use exposure therapy because this helps expose the person to the stimulus. You would make sure the person is relaxed. Systematic desensitization is used by getting them relaxed and then showing them a picture of the rat, then gradually adding more to this by showing them a stuffed rat, a rat on television and then a real rat. This builds up their capability of being with their phobia.

Describe how you would use shaping to teach a pigeon to turn in a circle. Include the schedule of reinforcement you would start with to cause the pigeon to learn most quickly, and then describe the schedule you would switch to in order to make the circle-turning behavior very difficult to extinguish. Then describe three distinct techniques you would use to extinguish the circle-turning behavior. (What is the most effective way to extinguish the behavior?

Continuous reinforcement would be best at first, but then you would switch to variable ratio schedule to make it more difficult to extinguish. Three ways to stop the circle behavior = shock, stop the food, reinforce the opposite behavior (best way), punish it

Describe escape negative reinforcement and avoidance negative reinforcement. Then describe punishment. (Be certain to include how negative reinforcement and punishment are similar and how they are different). Give clear examples of both. Which of the two is more preferable to use? Do individuals look forward to negative reinforcement? What is a synonym for negative reinforcement? What are some of the bad side effects of punishment?

Escape negative reinforcement is when the aversive stimulus is present, but you get rid of it. For example, if the window is open and cold air is blowing in, you close the window to get rid of it. Avoiding negative reinforcement is when you prevent the aversive stimulus from being present. With the same example, someone offers to open the window, but you say no, therefore avoiding the aversive stimulus from ever being present. Individuals look forward toi negative reinforcement. Avoiding negative reinforcement is preferable, so you don't have to face the aversive stimulus. A synonym for negative reinforcement is aversive stimulus. It can lead to aggression, antisocial behavior, and mental problems.

Describe how operant and classical conditioning are both present in the following situation. A young child hears the bell of an ice cream truck approaching in the summer time. This truck has come to her neighborhood every day for weeks but usually comes earlier in the afternoon. This makes her salivate and get excited. She then runs into the house and asks her dad for some money but her father refuses to give her any money since it is close to dinner. She then starts to cry and has a tantrum. After a few seconds, her father gives her the money in order to stop her from crying. (Label your answer with the terms unconditioned stimulus, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned response also (for operant) drives, cues, stimulus situation, operant, and negative and positive reinforcers).

U.S: Ice cream

negative reinforcer: to stop the crying

Going into the house and asking the Parent for money

Money = secondary reinforcer

**People look forward to negative reinforcement

Describe the Premack principle and give an example.

You can make a desirable behavior dependent on doing undesired behavior

More desirable is dependent on an undesired behavior

Ex: Teacher says you have to do your homework then you will go to recess. Over time the kid learns how to do the undesired behavior in order to have access to the fun activity

Describe the overjustification effect and give an example.

Phenomenon in which being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action

Doing a behavior for fun (ex: playing lacrosse) → then the person gets hired to be a coach (paid) → the person finally stops getting paid

Go from playing for free → getting paid → no longer getting paid

Loses interest because you were relying on getting paid as a coach

Motivation changes from internal to external

Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcement. Give examples of each. Describe a token economy.

Primary reinforcement

The primary reinforcers occur naturally and do not need to be learned.

Secondary reinforcement

Secondary reinforcement refers to a situation in which a stimulus reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer.

Ex: money, grades in school

Token Economy

Reinforce positive behavior with physical rewards

Must be secondary reinforcement

Secondary, go something first like get a good grade and then they can get the reward

Describe how classical conditioning can cause a phobia, and how operant conditioning can maintain a phobia through negative reinforcement

Classical conditioning causes phobias through the association of something we don't fear, such as dogs (NS), with something we do fear, such as being bitten (US). After the association is formed the dogs as now the CS and elicit the CR of fear, this along with generalization, which would make you scared of all dogs and not just the one that bit you, leads to a phobia. Operant conditioning maintains phobias through negative reinforcement because you don't face the phobia, and so you avoid the anxiety and fear that comes with the stimulus. This is avoidance negative reinforcement.

Compare secondary conditioning and blocking. How are they similar and how are they different?

Blocking = tone/food multiple times, then light and tone at same time/food → tone blocks the light so you don't need another to predict the CS

Secondary = tone/food multiple times, then light/tone → Light becomes CS (predicts the tone, tone predicts the food)

Compare classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence. In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, 5 while classical conditioning involves no such enticements.

Acquisition

Classical:

You place food on a key and sound a tone right before a pigeon pecks the key. After several attempts the pigeon will peck the key when they hear the tone

Operant: a behavior is associated with a consequence that affects the probability of the behavior appearing in the future

A person goes to a restaurant and likes the food they are more likely to go back to the restaurant in the future

Extinction

Classical: Overtime the response becomes extinct because the act of the performance becomes less interesting

Operant: gradual weakening and disappearance of a behavior because the behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer. Application of punishment to stop behavior

Child is no longer reinforced for yelling out in class so the behavior discontinues

Generalization

Classical: when you generalize a stimulus (listen to a specific tone but then hear another one you still focus on the original tone)

Operant: Involves the elicitation of a response to a stimulus situation that resembles the discriminative stimulus. Facilitates the transfer of behavior across similar situations

A student is quiet in his town library and is quiet in the university library

Discrimination

Classical: You listen to certain tones but not every tone

Operant: Elicitation of a response only in the presence of a specific discriminative stimulus not in the presence of similar stimuli

Behavior appropriate in a playground is not appropriate in a place of worship

Spontaneous Recovery

Classical: Goes to extinction then three week after you hear it again and show are response

Operant: after extinction and a rest period a person or animal attempts to re engage in the prior voluntary behavior

Person goes to a restaurant and likes the food. The chef changed so the food isn't good so the person stops going (extinction). Months later the person tries the restaurant again

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience; learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

performance

any activity or gathering of reactions which leads to an outcome or has an impact on the surroundings

ivan pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus