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lysosomes

autolysis via hydrolytic enzymes

gogli apparatus

processes proteins for transport

peroxisomes

• produces H2O2 to break down VLCFA

• assists in phospholipid synthesis and PPP

microfilaments

• actin rodes

• protection, muscle contraction, cleavage furrow

microtubules

• motor protein pathway and centrioles

• cilia and flagella

• 9+2 structure only in eukaryotes

intermediate filaments

• keratin, desmin, vimentin, lamines

• cell-cell adhesion, maintain cytoskeleton, cell rigidity, or organelles

bacteria structure

• single circular chromosome in nucleoid

  • cell wall and plasma membrane

  • flagella

recombination bacteria

• transformation- from environment

• conjugation- between bacteria

• transduction-from virus

archea vs bacteria

• both have circular chromosome, no lipopolysaccharides nor peptidoglycans, undergoes binary fission

• archea starts translation with methionine, histones, and similar RNA polymerase to euk

DNA viruses

• consists of DNA genome, nucleus, and host machinery

• dsDNA and ssDNA

RNA viruses DNA/RNA constitution

• ssRNA- + or -, positive can be translated immediately to produce viral protein. Negative must be transcribed into the complementary sense before being transcribed

  • RNA dependent RNA polymerase- RdRP- transcribes - to +

viruses structure

• caspid protein shell

• nucleic acid genome

• NO NUCLEUS or membrane bound organelle

• 10-100x smaller than prok or euk

retroviruses

• 2 copies of ssRNA

• reverse transcriptase converts RNA to dsDNA

• dsdNA enters nuc of host and inserts via integrase

• becomes provirus- permanently ingrained into host genome

viroids

• small circular ssRNA without caspid

• affects plants

• silences genes

prions

• misfolded protein

• alpha helices to beta pleated sheets

• it decreases solubility, degrading

• neural diseases

Interphase

• G1- presynthetic gap, organelle formation, increases cell size

• G0- resting, no division

• S- DNA synthesis (2n, 2c → 2n, 4c)

• G2- post synthetic gap- cell preparation before mitosis

Mitosis

• somatic cell (2n, 4c→ 2 × 2n, 2c)

• prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

• Checkpoints-

  • G1/S- repairs DNA before synthesis (p53 repairs)

  • G2/M- cell size and organelle check

  • M/A- checks if all chromosomes attached to spinde

  • cyclins and CDK control cell cycle

Prophase (mitosis and meiosis 2)

• nuclear membrane dissolves, condensed chromosomes

  • centrioles move to poles, spindle apparatus forms, microtubules attach

    • Asters → centrioles, kinetochore fibers → kinetochores

Meiosis

• Meiosis 1- sex cells, reductional division, diploid parent 2n, 4c → 2 haploid daughters 1n, 2c

• Meiosis II- 2x 1n, 2c → 4× 1n,1c

meiosis 1

• prophase 1- synapsis- homologs become tetrads via synaptonemal complexes, crossover- chromatids separate at chiasmata→ recombination

• metaphase 1- homologs middle

• anaphase 1- disjunction

• telophase 1- partial chromosome uncoil, rest

metaphase

• chromosomes align at mid

anaphase

• chromosomes split and sister chromatids move to opposite poles

telophase

• spindle apparatus disappears, nuclear membrane reforms, chromosome uncoils

• cytokinesis

outside male structures and functions

• penis- delivers urine

• scrotum- supports testes

• epididymis- connects testes and vans deferens

• testes- produces testosterone

inside male structures

• vans deferens- transports mature sperm to urethra

• seminal vesicles- contributes to semen production, attaches to vans deferens

• prostate gland- below bladder, helps sperm production

• bulbourethral glands- side of urethra below prostate, cleans urethra

spermatogenesis

• spermatogonia → 1 spermatocyte → 2 spermatocyte → spermatid → spermatozoa

sperm structure

• head- acrosome for penetrating ovum

• midpiece- mitochondria filled for motility

• flagellum- 9+2

female external structure

• mons pubis- fatty area that overlies pubic symphysis

• clitoris- erectile tissue containing nerves

• labia majora- covers labia minora

• labia minora- covers vestibule

• greater vestibular glands- sides of opening, lubricate

• breast- mammary glands

internal female structures

• ovaries- carry and produce eggs, secretes estrogen and progesterone

• fallopian tubes- transport eggs

• uterus- supports fetus, produces secretions, passes sperm on to fallopian tubes

• vagina- tube

ovulation

• follicles > peritoneal cavity > fallopian tube > uterus > cervix > vagina

oogenesis

• 1 oocyte > 2 oocyte + polar body (stays in metaphase II until fertilization)

oocyte structure

• zona pellucida- protects ovum, binds sperm

• corona radiata- stuck to oocyte during ovulation

sexual development