PSY 471 exam 1

Technological advances

• increasingly necessary for meeting many human needs

• not necessarily bad

• useful, efficient & revolutionary

Costs of technology

• stress & wellbeing

• bodily dysregulation

• motivation & addiction

• misuse & abuse

• confusion & uncertainty

• polarization

Cyberpsychology

discipline of understanding psychological processes related to, & underlying, all aspects & features of technologically interconnected human behavior

Machine & Mind

series of systems, each with independent functions that operate together to perform task(s)

Critical quality of brain

constantly receives & uses info in environment to adjust behavior

• typically not seen in machines

Machine Learning

not inherently a bad thing, but utility depends on goal & task

Media & attracting attention

time is MONEY, especially for free subscription services

• time exposed to ads

• amount of highly useful data compiled

Thiune Brain Theory

brain is organized into hierarchy of evolutionary developement

• low level: auto, emo, guttural

• high level: thoughtful, rational, planning

Implications of Thiune Brain Theory

1. species evolve linearly, & humans are at the end of the line

2. reptiles don’t have the more evolved human parts of the brain

3. impulsive behaviors = lizard brain, otherwise it’s our more evolved human brain

4. dual process models of cognition

Dual Process Models

hot regulates cold, dominates many areas of psychology

• implicit vs explicit attitudes

• affective vs cognitive

• subconscious vs conscious

• associative vs propositional memory & conditioning

• fast vs slow processing

Empirical Work for Dual Process Models

when shut down explicit/slow/conscious process

• implicit/automatic processes affect attitude & behavior

• limit time vs give ample time

• cognitive load vs low effort

Usefulness of Dual Process Models

very useful heuristic for understanding many aspects of human psychology

Nuance of Dual Process Models

processes are not mutuall exclusive

• multiple dimension simultaneously

• both controlled & automatic features

Brain organization

vertical spectrum along neuroaxis

• brain stem

• diencephalon (thalamus & hypothalamus)

• limbic structures (hippocampus, amygdala & basal ganglia)

• cerebral cortex

Features lower down on neuroaxis

• more directly wired to bodily systems

• cranial & spinal nerves leaving brain stem

• highly structured at brith & generally lacking in plasticity

• critically involved in neurochemical production

• adjusts higher brain regions & bodily functions

Features higher up on neuroaxis

• indirectly wired to bodily systems

• connect via brainstem & lower regions (except smell)

• relatively unstructured at birth & highly plastic

• implicated in conscious/effortful processing

Dynamic & connected systems

info constantly updated up & down neuroaxis to coordinate & organize appropriate responses

• optimal, flexible interaction between auto & conscious control

• balance/interaction can get dysregulated

Why we doomscroll late at night

1. auto desires for stimulation arise, more conscious, controllable processes fail to override

2. having conscious, deliberate thoughts about planning day, work etc. that override auto desires for sleep

Circadian Rhythm

the physical, mental & behavioral changes an organism experiences over a 24-hour cycle

• modulated by brain structure lower down neuroaxis

Blue light & Circadian Rhythm

exposure ot light (especially blue light) impacts melatonin production

• disruptive at night when melatonin peaks

• most common source are screens

• blue light not inherently bad, but timing of exposure matters

Blue light in evening

• melatonin suppression

• shorter sleep duration

• poorer sleep quality

Day after evening with blue light exposure

• slower reaction times

• daytime sleepiness

Shortened &/or poor quality sleep

havoc all over the neuroaxis

• working memory & cognitive performance

• academic performance

• cognitive biases & attention

• risk-taking

• depression & anxiety

• high perceived stress

Cyclical effect (using phone at night)

1. smartphone use

2. impacts automatic sleep-wake cycle

3. impacts stress, focus & depression

4. more smartphone use

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

various models, but largely holds today

• physiological & psychological needs

• biggest critique: order of hierarchy is culturally limited

• often our goals may serve multiple needs/goals OR conflict with one another

Goal pursuit

goals help ensure need fulfillment

• systems in place to keep track of meeting goals

Progress/completion of goals

positive affective & cognitive outcomes

• accomplishment

• pride

• content

• satiation

Falling short/fear of not meeting goals

negative affective & cognitive outcomes

• dejection

• disappointment

• unease

• irritability

Goal pursuit regulated by dopamine

• reward cues → phasic, active finding of dopamine

• failure cues → depression of dopamine

Expectancy Value Framework

intentionally set goals that are high in success expectation & value

• but might not be the whole story

Unconscious goal pursuit

goals can arise & operate automatically

1. we have chronic but not always accessible goals

2. we hold learned associations between goals & environmental/situational cues

3. cue present/accessible (whether consciously or not) → activate associated goals

4. goals → behavior

Psychological associations with money

money → independence & self-reliance goals → impart behavior

• reduced requests for help & helping towards others

• placed more physical distance between self & others

• decreased feelings of personal connection to others

Strength of cue-behavior association depends on

1. how worthwhile is goal-pursuit?

2. how strong is association between cue & goal? (practised, rehearsed, habitual)

both learned through prior experience

Extremely effective behavioral cue

• present in many different contexts

• high reward utility

• likely to lead to many successful goal outcomes

Phone as constant unconscious goal prime

• gateway for all kinds of goals

• mobilizing mobile phone for goal pursuit → high utility

• grabs our attention → repeated/chronic use → enhance learning of associations

Learning

relatively permanent change in knowledge/behavior that results from experience

Conditioning

• learning by association

• 2 things “go together”

• co-occur repeatedly

• different from unconscious goal pursuit

Classical conditioning

type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response/reflec after being paired with stimulus that naturally produces the response

How to classical condition

pair neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus

• after repeating, eventually the neutral stimulus invokes a conditioned response

Operant conditioning

• behavior → approaching incentives, moving away from punishment

• behavior more likely to be repeated with favorable consequences

Positive reinforcement

increases behavior by presenting pleasurable stimulus

• social rewards

• validation

• connection

Negative reinforcement

increases behavior by removing an aversive (unpleasant stimulus)

Schedules of reinforcement

patterns of how reinforcers are presented over time

• influence how rapidly oragnism learn behavior/how resistant behavior is to extinction

Continuous schedules

reinforcement occurs with every response

Partial schedules

reinforcements happen part of the time

• fixed

• variable

Fixed schedule

reinforcement provided after a fixed number of responses/set time

Variable schedules

reinforcement provded after a varying amount of responses/set time

Which schedule of reinforcement is more effective

variable schedules

• tend to generate higher response rates & greater resistance to extinction

• unpredictability = every time COULD bring rewards

Goal pursuit interruption

we don’t like when goal pursuit is interrupted

• adaptive and helpful

Apps and goal pursuit interruption

• endless scrolling/streaming promotes fluid & enjoyable experience

• purposefully interrupt goal pursuit e.g. sell you something to continue

Stress

a state of mental/emotional strain/tension/effort resulting from demanding circumstances

• does not have to be intense or life-altering

Stressor categories of this generation

similar to those of prev generations, but differ in scope & nature

• career prospects & AI

• rising costs

• online relationships

largely psychological rather than physical

What we do when stressed

• seek comfort

• take break from stressors

• one place to go to: smartphone

Security with smartphone

immediate source of comfort & retreat from stress

• especially for young people

• #1 reason for pulling out smart phone: relaxation/escapism

• up to 99% students have at leat moderate levels of “nomophobia”: fear of being detached from mobile phone connectivity

Greater stress and phones

• phone check frequency → greater depression, stress, anxiety

• millenials most likely to attribute stress to smartphone/device

Melumad et al. study 1

participants viewed smartphone as source of comfort

• stronger than PC

• portability, privacy, personal, haptic qualities

• enjoyment & entertainment → more comfort

• younger → more comfort

Melumad et al. study 2

• high stress condition: write speech about why they’d be perfect candidate for job, and later recite speech by memo + visible camera

• low stress condition: write advice for someone who was applying for job, no reciting & no visible camera present

• participant left to be filmed for 10 min

Melumad et al. study 2 results

high stress

• more likely to use phone

• quicker to use phone

• spent more time on phone

Concerns for Melumad et al. study 2

due to nature of high stress task, participants could have been using phone to prepare for the speech rather than just seeking comfort

Melumad et al. study 3

• measure comfort before stressor, after stressor, & after manipulation task

• manipulation task: use phone or laptop to view Tumblr page

Melumad et al. study 3 results

• all participants felt better after manipulation task

• starker increase for those in smartphone condition

• may also be due to stressful associations with laptops

Melumad et al. study 4

• apply stressor before manipulation task

• view tumblr page on own smartphone/lab’s smartphone

• measure comfort before stressor, after stressor, & after manipulation task

Melumad et al. study 4 results

• increase in comfort from time 2 to time 3

• but moreso for own device than when using lab’s device

• but there could also be paranoia discomfort surrounding lab’s smartphone

What makes something stressful

1. perceived importance & self-relevance

2. uncertainty & unpredictability

Active coping

awareness of stressor, followed by attempts to reduce impact/scope

• problem-focused

• emotion-focused

Problem-focused coping

attacking stressor directly

Emotion-focused coping

reframing emotional response & instilling skills to manage stressors

Avoidance coping

changes in behavior to avoid thinking about/feeling/doing things related to stressor

What’s wrong with avoidance coping?

evading/delaying stressor exacerbates/extends stress, without helping resolve issue/reframe response

• greater work[place burnout

• lower self-esteem

• anxious & depressive symptoms

Hoolahan et al.

10-year longitudinal study of 1211 late-middle-aged people

• avoidance coping style → more incidences of stressors → future depressive symptoms

• range of negative life events from acute to chronic

Resilience

adapted ability to manage well in face of stressors

• cope productively with stressors

• performing well in difficult/new/uncertain situations

• emotional stability in times of stress

• developed through experiences with stressors

Previous resilience theory

more adversity → more adverse

• linear relationship

Seery et al. on resilience

some adversity → greater resilience

• exposure to moderate & manageable amount of lifetime stressors

• more positive responses to ongoing & future stressors

Damage to aMCC

associated with

• motivational impairment

• apathy

• inability to plan for long-term goals

aMCC & mental/physical health

bigger aMCC/stronger connectivity predicts

• less apathetic symptoms of depression

• greater cognitive performance in old age

• greater exercise capacity

• healthier food choices

• stronger academic performance

• grit, persistence, willingness to exert effort

Phones giving comfort & stress

• short-term benefit: reprieve from stressor

• long-term consequences: avoidance coping, stifling resilience & tenacity

Panova & Lleras

internet & mobile use → greater depression & anxiety

• but only when people used it to avoid negative experiences/feelings

• using for boredom reduction = little association

Pew Research survey on internet use

• worn out by amount of news/info they encounter

• worn out by political posts & discussions seen on social media

• stressful & frustrating to talk about substantiative policy issues on social media

Self-esteem

overall self-evaluation

• affective: not necessarily conscious, but emotional gut feeling

Self-discrepancy theory

feelings about self affected by how we see possible, hypothetical selves

• how close is actual self to positive hypothetical selves

Bringing discrepancies to mind

1. when we fail or feel we could fail at something (especially for important domains)

2. situations that heighten self-awareness

Self-awareness trap

constant comparisons fo current self to high personal standards/desirable hypothetical selves

• the more examination, the more discrepancy we might see

• chronically heightened focus on self → negatively impacts self-esteem

Narcissism

exagerrated feelings of grandiosity, vanity, self-absorption &/or entitlement

• self-focused attention in hyperdrive

Grandiose/overt narcissism

• more prototypical form

• external expressions of entitlement/superiority

Vulnerable/covert narcissism

• self-absorbed neuroticism

• need for recognition & praise

• hypersensitive to feedback

Narcissism & social media

high in narcissism (especially overt) → more likely to carefully monitor & construct favorable online personas