Human Bio Exam 3 (Final) Review

The 9 parts of the respiratory system:

*think pinbball td

alveoli, lungs, larynx, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea, nasal cavity, pharynx, muscles: diaphragm and intercostals

Major site of gas exchange:

alveoli: thin pockets covered in capillaries

How does gas exchange in the lungs and body cells happen, and why?

1. Physical pressure (inhalation: diaphragm contracts flat, expansion and exhalation: diaphragm relaxes upwards and contraction), and  

2. Diffusion from a high to low concentration within alveoli and the body tissue by gaseous pressure 

   1. Inhaled air high O2 levels and low CO2 levels 

   2. Blood arriving at lungs: low O2 levels and high CO2 levels  

Relationship between hemoglobin, O2, and CO2:

Hemoglobin with oxygen comes in contact with body cells with no oxygen, body cells have lots of CO2 so hemoglobin is going to bind to it

HemO2 + body cellsCO2, no oxygen = bond

Kinds of Immunity: Physical Barriers

nonspecific, first line of defense of internal tissues from bacteria and viruses

ex: skin, cilia, mucus

Kinds of Immunity: Innate Immunity

nonspecific, activated immediately,

ex: release of histamines causes swelling and increased blood flow, fever 

*think innate immune, immediately

Kinds of Immunity: Adaptive Immunity

specific, develops over the course of your lifetime, T-cells: communicator cells, and B-cells: make antibodies for invaders 

antibodies: a protein that can match up with an antigen

*think when you ad[o]pt, you want a specific child

Parts of the Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes

storage for WBCs 

Parts of the Lymphatic System: Spleen

holds T-cells and B-cells

How does the body know what it should attack and what it should leave alone? In other words, how does it distinguish between self and non-self?

Antigens are marker molecules that communicate self vs non-self to the immune system to direct which cells should be destroyed or left alone. 

Endocrine System

slow communication of hormones in the circulatory system 

Parts of the Endocrine System: Glands

structures in the body that produce hormones: signaling molecules that bind two receptors on target cells 

Parts of the Endocrine System: Steroid hormones + examples

lipid based, able to directly enter a cell 

ex) sex hormones, aldosterone, cortisol

*think ste-roid and li-pid same syllables

Parts of the Endocrine System: Nonsteroid hormones + examples

built from amino acids, bind with receptors on the cell membrane 

ex) thyroid hormone, oxytocin, growth hormone, insulin

*think non-ste-roid and a-mi-no same syllables

Hormone Interactions: Opposing interactions

two or more hormones oppose each other’s effects 

ex) insulin: lower blood sugar and glucagon: raise blood sugar

Hormone Interactions: Synergistic interactions

two or more hormones cooperate for a greater effect 

ex) LH + estrogen

Hormone Interactions: Permissive interactions

one hormone only works if another primes the target (give permission)

Melatonin: the gland it is secreted from, and the effect of that hormone

• The gland it is secreted from: pineal gland

• The effect of that hormone:

  • Influences sleep/wake cycles

Thyroid hormone (TH): the gland it is secreted from, and the effect of that hormone

• The gland it is secreted from: thyroid gland

• The effect of that hormone:

  • Sets metabolism

  • Enhances growth hormone production

Parathyroid hormone (PTH): the gland it is secreted from, and the effect of that hormone

• The gland it is secreted from: parathyroid gland

• The effect of that hormone:

  • regulates calcium levels

  • regulates phosphorus and vitamin D levels in blood and bones

Parts of the Nervous System: Dendrites

receive electrical impulses/neurotransmitters 

Parts of the Nervous System: Axon

transmit electrical impulses rapidly due to myelin sheath covering insulating it

Parts of the Nervous System: Axon terminals

send the electrical impulses to the next neuron in line

Parts of the Nervous System: Synapse

gap between neurons *think nap rhymes with gap

Parts of the Nervous System: Sensory neurons

pick up stimuli

*think sensory and stimuli both start with s

Parts of the Nervous System: Motor neurons

transmit impulses away from the Central Nervous System

Parts of the Nervous System: Interneurons

connects sensory and motor neurons, relaying the message

The Nervous System breaks down into 2:

Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

everywhere else other than the brain and spinal cord

The Peripheral Nervous System breaks down into 2:

Autonomic Nervous System and Somatic Nervous System

*think PAS

Autonomic Nervous System

regulatory processes such as heart rate, sleeping, breathing, and digestion

*think autonomic like automatic, we don’t think about them

Somatic Nervous System

movement and muscle control, sensory information

*think so nervous —> so(matic) nervous need to move and control muscles

The Autonomic Nervous System breaks down into 2:

Parasympathetic Nervous System and Sympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic Nervous System

manages the body at rest *think parallel, wanting to lay down and rest

Sympathetic Nervous System

activates the body’s fight or flight

***Describe the process of firing a nerve (fill in the blank) from resting-to-resting state. Know the different ions and which are higher and lower in/outside the cell 

*think NID

1. Nerve in Resting Potential: high levels of K+ potassium inside the cell (inside is positively charged) and high levels of Na+ sodium outside the cell (outside is negatively charged) 

2. Impulse: the stimulated part of the neuron opens to Na+ sodium moves into the cell 

3. Depolarization: K+ potassium leaves the cell until all charges return to resting potential

All or None Principle

neurons either fully fire or not at all – no partial activation or partial firing

Define and give an example: Epigenetics

environmental factors affecting gene expression

ex) identical twins developing different traits over time

Define and give an example: Mutations

change in genetic code, can be good, bad, or neutral – based on environmental conditions (whether a trait is favorable, affects survivability of that individual) 

ex) sickle cell anemia

Define and give an example: Principle of Independent Inheritance

recombination of genes from each parent 

ex) the inheritance of one trait (hair color) does not affect the inheritance of another trait (blood tyoe)

How many chromosomes would you find in a regular body cell?

46 chromosomes

How many chromosomes would you find in a sex cell (gametes)?

23 chromosomes