Emotions, Stress and Self Regulation Final Exam

Emotions

adaptive psycho-physiological responses to relevant challenges, dangers, and social situations critical for survival

3 components of emotional response

cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components

cognitive component of emotional response

perceptions, memories, thoughts, and beliefs that influence emotions

physiological component of emotional response

physical changes that occur in the body when an emotion is experienced (autonomic/endocrine responses)

behavioral component of emotional response

observable actions and reactions (motor responses) that indicate emotional states (ex: freezing, hiding, aggressive and defensive behavior)

sympathetic NS response to emotions

part of autonomic NS, prepares the body to handle relevant situations effectively for survival

parasympathetic NS response to emotions

part of autonomic NS, calms the body down after the threat slowing heart rate and promoting relaxation

adrenaline and noradrenaline response to stress

part of endocrine system, increases HR and BP, dilates pupils, supplies energy for muscle activation for immediate action (fight or flight)

cortisol response to stress

regulates stress response and maintains homeostasis by negative feedback mechanisms

brain areas in limbic system

hippocampus, thalamus, amygdala, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and pre-frontal cortex (PFC)

function of limbic system in emotions/fear

brain structures that play a crucial role in regulating emotions, memory, and motivation for survival

amygdala role in emotions/fear

integrates sensory information and coordinates emotional (fear, aggression) and physiological responses (fight or flight), consolidates significant emotional memories, plays a role in decision-making, social behavior, and reward processing

basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) role in emotions/fear

recieves information from the cortex, hippocampus and thalamus. sends output to central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), PFC, and hippocampus (critical for LEARNED fear)

central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) role in emotions/fear

the effector region of the amygdala sending output projections to the hypothalamus, PAG, and brainstem. this controls physiological and motor responses and if hyperactive it is responsible for the harmful effects of stress (critical for INNATE fear)

limbic system information processing system for emotions/fear

1. emotional and contextual information is recieved from the cortex (also hippocampus and thalamus) to the BLA

2. the BLA integrates this information and sends it to CeA, controlled by vmPFC inputs (inhibitory)

3. the CeA coordinates the body’s response by sending signals to the hypothalamus, midbrain, and medulla

4. the MeA helps the brain recognize threats and triggers appropriate emotional responses

fear

an adaptive, deeply rooted emotional response that arises from percieved threats or danger, activating psycho-physiological changes aimed at survival

Urbach-Wiethe disease

bilateral symmetrical calcifications in blood vessels affecting medial temporal lobes and destruction of the amygdala, resulting in reduced sense of danger, lack of fear and anger in different contexts, and cannot recognize this emotions in others

fear conditioning/acquisition

based on classical pavlovian conditioning theory, when a neutral stimulus is paired with an aversive stimulus (unconditioned stimulus, US) producing fear behavior (freezing, conditioned response, CR)

fear expression

when the animal or person is exposed to only the conditioned stimulus (CS) it elicits fear behavior

fear extinction

after repeated exposure to only the conditioned stimulus (CS) fear response decreases

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

persistent and excessive worry about various aspects of life

social anxiety disorder (social phobia)

intense fear of social situations where one might be judged or embarassed

specific phobias

irrational fear of specific objects or situations (heights, spiders, flying)

panic disorder

recurrent, unexpected panic attacks with symptoms like palpitations and sweating

agoraphobia

fear of situations where escape might be difficult, leading to avoidance of places like crowded areas

aggressive behavior in all species

species-specific behavior mostly related to survival and reproduction and involving neurobiological, genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors

aggressive behavior in humans

any behavior intended to harm another individual

predation

involves a predator chasing, capturing, killing, and consuming another prey for sustenance

limbic system brain areas involved in aggression and predation

vmPFC, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and PAG

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) role in aggression/predation

located at the bottom front of cerebral hemispheres, inhibits aggressive behavior and modulates responses by interacting with hippocampus and amygdala, adapts aggressive response to contextual information, involved in evaluating risks and rewards

amygdala role in aggression/predation

located in both hemispheres within the medial temporal lobes of the brain, involved in emotional processing (takes fear and anger and has appropriate responses to threats), aggression regulation (interacts with vmPFC and hippocampus), sympathetic and hormonal regulation (fight/flight response and interacts with hypothalamus) and memory formation (consolidation of significant emotional memories in the BLA)

hypothalamus role in aggression/predation

located under the thalamus and above the pituitary gland, key regulator of instinctive and motivated behaviors, defensive and offensive aggression, interacts with vmPFC (top-down inhibitory control) and amygdala (provides emotional and threat related input), physiological and hormonal responses to emotions (HPA activation, CRH, ACTH, cortisol) and signals the PAG (motor component of aggression)

periaqueductal grey matter (PAG)

critical structure in the midbrain for motor actions involved with aggression and defense, predation, pain modulation, stress, social behavior, and reproduction

Dorsal PAG involvement with aggression

active defensive aggression

lateral PAG involvement with aggression

offensive/predatory aggression

ventrolateral PAG involvement with aggression

passive defense (freezing)

ventromedial PAG involvement with aggression

modulation/integration of aggressive response

aggression/predation information processing

1. contextual information is processed by the PFC (hippocampus and thalamus too) and sent to the amygdala

2. the amygdala detects and evaluates threats, signaling the hypothalamus (LH, VMH)

3. the PAG coordinates the specific motor actions required for an aggressive/predatory response

serotonin involvement with aggression

generally inhibits aggression, lower levels are linked to increased aggressive behavior

dopamine involvement with aggression

associated with reward-motivated aggression

noradrenaline involvement with aggression

facilitates aggression under stress by increasing arousal and vigilance

GABA/glutamate involvement with aggression

inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter that reduces or enhances neural activity

testosterone involvement with aggression

hormone correlated with higher levels of aggression

oxytocin involvement with aggression

promotes social bonding and reduces aggression

acetylcholine involvement with aggression

modulates arousal and motor responses (muscle activation) involved in aggression

stress

set of allostatic mechanisms activated in response to real or perceived challenges, aimed at maintaining or restoring homeostasis

homeostasis

maintenance of a stable internal physiological environment used by single systems, and it is reactive to correct physiological levels

allostasis

achievement of stability in response to stress by changing internal parameters used by multiple systems, and it is ancticipatory in preparing for potential challenges

acute stress

short-term activation with full recovery

physiological component of stress response

autonomic activation and endocrine activation (SMA and HPA axis)

psychological component of stress response

subjective cognitive and emotional processing of the stressor (appraisal = how the situation is interpreted)

behavioral component of the stress response

observable actions or coping strategies

components of stress response that an emotional response doesn’t elicit

stress implies a demand on homeostasis, and usually elicit emotional response representing the “whole adaptive package”

sympathetic-medullary-adrenal (SMA) axis involvement with stress

part of hypothalamus that induces immediate physiological changes (fight/flight) like increased HR, energy mobilization and hightened alertness to better respond to the threat.

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis involvement with stress

part of hypothalamus that induces increased HR and BP, metabolic changes, immune system modulation,, and suppression of non-essential functions (digestion/reproduction)

allostatic load

excessive allostatic adjustments, refers to the wear and tear that results from inefficient management of chronic stress-induced allostasis (lack of adaptation)

mindfulness

the awareness that emerges when paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and without judging the experience moment to moment

mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

a pioneering approach in the integration of meditation techniques in Western medicine and psychology

benefits of mindfulness

improves cognitive function (increased concentration, creativity, and personal and work well-being among others)

impulsivity

immediate, automatic, or emotionally-driven (reactive) responses without adequate consideration of the long-term consequences

impulse control

ability to resist or delay impulsive responses involving mainly motor control and regulation of reactive emotional responses, and critical for survival and adaptive behaviors

self-control

the ability to align behavior with long-term goals (delayed rewards), involves mainly emotional regulation, decision making, and reward processing

PFC involvement with impulse/self-control

allows inhibition of impulses, evaluation of consequences, delayed gratification

hippocampus involvement with impulse/self-control

contextual memory, reward learning

amygdala involvement with impulse/self-control

emotional regulation, impulsive aggression

nucleus accumbens (NAc)

evaluation of long-term consequences

ventral pallium (VP) involvement with impulse/self-control

reward mediated motor control (vigor motor)

hypothalamus involvement with impulse/self-control

stress response in terms of impulse/self-control

dopamine

produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra (SN), it promotes reward-seeking, motivation, and pleasure

nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum) (NAc)

action selection for motivation relevant rewards

mesolimbic pathway (addiction)

encodes core motivational components and states of reward and addiction

ventral pallium (VP) involvement with addiction

translates mesolimbic “wanting” into invigorated action, and this limibic-motor interface can explain why cocaine addicts can’t stop moving (hypersensitive D1 pathway drives compulsive motor output)

mesocortical circuit (addiction)

controls cognitive flexibility, working memory, decision-making, and inhibitory control (suppresses reward-mediated impulsive responses)

Dopamine dynamics

low stimulation = ADHD like behavior, normal stimulation = optimal executive function, high stimulation = perseveration, chronic/pathologically high stimulation (from chronic drug use) = poor impulse control

serotonin involvement with impulse control

enhances PFC inhibitory function, reduces amygdala reactivity, modulates dopaminergic regions, and promotes mood control, patience, and planning long-term thinking

intermittent explosive disorder (IED)

sudden, intense episodes of anger

kleptomania

irresistable urge to steal items

pyromania

compulsion to start fires

oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

uncooperative, defiant, and hostile behavior toward authority figures

conduct disorder

behavior violating the rights of others and societal/moral norms, including aggression, destruction of property, deceitfulness, and theft

explanation of young brains’ reward system

prioritizes immediate rewards, greater reward-driven modulation of performance, variable and less stable reward learning, difficulty integrating negative feedback/losses into future choices

moral decision making

evaluation of actions based on ethical principles, personal values, and anticipated consequences, involving brain regions that integrate emotional processing, rational thought, and social cognition

obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRDs)

OCD, body dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), and excoriation (skin-picking disorder)

disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders (DIC)

oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, kleptomania, and pyromania

trauma and stress-related disorders

PTSD and acute stress disorder

obsessive compulsive disorder

presence of obsessions compulsions, or both

obsessions

intrusive and recurrent thoughts, urges or mental images that cause marked anxiety or distress (fear of contamination/dirt, distress when things aren’t orderly, fear about losing control, disgusting thoughts)

compulsions

repetitive behaviors or mental acts aiming to ignore, suppress, or neutralize anxiety and distress caused by obsessions (repeating words silently, mental counting, praying, checking, ordering, cleaning, avoiding certain places/situations)

psychological factors of OCD

high anxiety sensitivity, dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes, intolerance of uncertainty, perfectionism, over-responsibility