ap psychology

Wilhelm Wundt

First psychology lab; structuralism.

William James

Functionalism.

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis.

Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning.

B.F. Skinner

Operant conditioning.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive development.

Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of needs.

Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychology.

Biological Perspective

Focuses on the physical and biological bases of behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

Emphasizes observable behaviors and the effect of learning.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on mental processes such as thinking and memory.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes human potential and personal growth.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious processes and childhood experiences.

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on the influences of culture and social interactions.

Evolutionary Perspective

Studies how evolutionary principles influence behavior.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Control Group vs. Experimental Group

The control group does not receive the treatment, while the experimental group does.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables, but does not imply causation.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without manipulation.

Survey

A method of gathering information from a large group.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of a single individual or group.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population.

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly assigned to different groups.

Placebo Effect

Improvement resulting from the belief in treatment.

Double-Blind Procedure

Both the participants and the researchers do not know who is receiving treatment.

Confounding Variable

An outside influence that affects the variables being studied.

Neuron

The basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons.

Soma

Cell body of the neuron.

Axon

Sends messages to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin Sheath

Covers the axon and speeds up transmission.

Terminal Buttons

Release neurotransmitters.

Dopamine

Involved in movement and reward.

Serotonin

Regulates mood.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle movement and memory.

Norepinephrine

Affects alertness.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body for fight or flight.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body down.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for decision making and personality.

Parietal Lobe

Processes touch and sensory information.

Occipital Lobe

Processes vision.

Temporal Lobe

Processes hearing and language.

Cerebellum

Controls balance and coordination.

Amygdala

Processes fear and emotion.

Hippocampus

Involved in memory.

Hypothalamus

Regulates homeostasis.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system.

Adrenal Glands

Release stress hormones.

Absolute Threshold

The smallest level of stimulus that can be detected.

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

The smallest difference that can be detected between two stimuli.

Sensory Adaptation

Decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus.

Weber’s Law

The principle that the change needed is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus.

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus.

Rods

Photoreceptors that detect black and white, peripheral vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors that detect color.

Fovea

The central focus point in the retina.

Frequency (Sound)

Determines pitch.

Amplitude (Sound)

Determines loudness.

Gestalt Principles

Theories of perception that emphasize holistic processing.

Figure-ground

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Proximity

Objects that are close together are perceived as a group.

Similarity

Similar objects are seen as part of the same group.

Closure

The mind fills in gaps to create a complete object.

Depth Cues

Ways to perceive depth in visual input.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through associations (Pavlov).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, unlearned reaction to the UCS.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an UCS, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Reinforcement

Increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.