Bio Exam 4

R groups

Differences in amino acids occur in the ______

Primary structure

which level of protein structure: the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

Secondary structure

which level of protein structure: folding patterns of the backbone

Tertiary structure

which level of protein structure: the full 3d shape of a single polypeptide chain

polar, nonpolar, and charged (acidic/basic)

classes of amino acids

polar

which class of amino acids can form hydrogen bonds with water?

nonpolar

which class of amino acids are hydrophobic, avoiding water and clustering together?

acidic

which class of amino acids are negatively charged?

basic

which class of amino acids are positively charged?

4

How many subunits does Hb have?

2 alpha, 2 beta

what are the kinds of chains in a Hb molecule?

iron

Each Hb subunit contains a heme group, which has an ____ atom

oxygen

each heme group binds to one _____

4

How many oxygen can a Hb molecule bind

transport oxygen from lungs to body tissues

Hb function

high

transporters (Hb) need ____ affinity in the lungs

low

transporters (Hb) need _____ affinity in the body tissues

quickly

high affinity means oxygen binds _____

easily

low affinity means oxygen releases _____

left shift

represents increased affinity on a graph (left or right shift)

right shift

represents decreased affinity on a graph (left or right shift)

low

T state = ____ affinity

high

R state = ____ affinity

higher

in the lungs, there is ______ PO2 than in the body

lower

in the body, there is _____ PO2 than in the lungs

body tissues

steep part of the Hb curve represents being in the ______

CO2

factor that decreases affinity: ____ reacts to form H+ acid which promotes O2 release

decrease

factor the decreases oxygen affinity: pH _____. more H+ ions bind Hb, stabilizing T state and making Hb release oxygen

higher

factor that decreases oxygen affinity: _____ temperature. heat weakens binding and promotes oxygen release

2,3-BPG

factor that decreases oxygen affinity: _______. produced in red blood cells, binds Hb and stabilizes the T state

parabronchi

bird gas exchange happens in the _________

unidirectional

birds have _______ flow, while humans have multidirectional

true

air sacs do not perform gas exchange, true or false

air sacs

bird respiratory part that moves air through the lungs and stores air to keep the flow continuous

decreases

when altitude increases, total air pressure _______

lower

PO2 is _____ at higher altitudes

left

high altitude birds have an Hb dissociation curve that is shifted ____ for higher oxygen affinity

central dogma

idea that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein

rural

death rates are higher in _____ communities

1.2

correction factor that black people’s kidney health scores were multiplied by

point mutation

when a single nucleotide is changed, one base replaced by another

frame shift mutation

an insertion or deletion not in a group of 3, causing all bases to change positions and rearrange codons

chromosomal mutation

mutation that affects large sections of DNA or entire chromosomes. deletion, duplication, inversion, or translocation

randomly

mutations happen _______

physical

____ processes that may cause mutations: UV radiation, X-rays, gamma radiation

chemical

_____ processes that may cause mutations: base analogs, alkylating agents, slip between DNA bases, industrial chemicals/pollutants

biological

______ processes that may cause mutations: viruses, transposons, bacteria and parasites

protective mechanisms from mutations

DNA proofreading, repair mechanisms, cell cycle checkpoints

loss of function

type of mutation that often has no effect because our other chromosome takes over functions

turned on

when the gene is active and being transcribed

turned off

when the gene is inactive

up regulated

the cell increases expression

down regulated

the cell decreases expression

DNA

all cells have the same ____, but they become different types of cells because they express different genes

muscle

_____ cells express genes for contractile proteins

nerve

_____ cells express genes for ion channels and neurotransmitters

red blood

_______ cells express genes for hemoglobin

signals

examples of things or situations that cause genes to be turned on or off: ____ from other cells, such as insulin activating genes involved in glucose uptake

environmental

examples of things or situations that cause genes to be turned on or off: _______ conditions: temp changes activate heat-response genes

nutrient

examples of things or situations that cause genes to be turned on or off: ______ availability: genes that break down lactose only when lactose is present

development

examples of things or situations that cause genes to be turned on or off: _______: specialization of cells

stress/damage

examples of things or situations that cause genes to be turned on or off: _________: DNA damage can activate repair genes

transcription factors

larger category for regulatory proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and control transcription

activator protein

type of transcription factor that increases gene expression by binding to a DNA sequence near a gene and helping RNA polymerase attach

repressor proteins

type of transcription factor that decreases gene expression by binding to DNA and blocking RNA polymerase from starting transcription

promoter

a DNA sequence located at the beginning of a gene, serving as the binding site for RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase

the enzyme that builds RNA from a DNA template

regulatory genes

genes that code for proteins that control the expression of other genes.

do not

regulatory genes _____ code for proteins directly, they produce activators, repressors, or transcription factors

gene family

a _______ is a group of genes that are related by sequence and often function

protein family

a _______ is a group of proteins that are similar in structure and function, usually because their genes evolved from a common ancestor

globin

example of a protein family is the ____ family: proteins that bind and carry oxygen.

transcription

DNA to mRNA is the process of ______

translation

mRNA to protein is the process of _____

nucleus

where does transcription happen

ribosome

where does translation happen

amino acids

mRNA specifies which ______ are needed

tRNA

_____ carries amino acids to the ribosome

anticodon

______ pairs with codons on mRNA

ribosome

the _____ links the amino acids to form a protein

unequal crossing over

source of new genes: happens during meiosis, when chromosomes misalign and exchange unequal segments

retrotransposition

source of new genes: when an mRNA molecule is copied back into DNA and inserted into the genome

whole genome duplication

source of new genes: when an organism accidentally duplicates its entire genome

horizontal gene transfer

source of new genes: when genes move between species (mostly bacteria)

central asia

bar headed geese mating grounds location

india

bar headed geese winter location