PATHO FINAL

What is a Nosocomial infection?

healthcare-associated infections

         hospital-acquired infections,

What is an Iatrogenic events.

An event that is secondary or caused by treatment. EX: “hair loss from chemo”

What is a sign or symptom?

A clinical manifestation, which one can be obeserved externally and which is a symptom that is only felt internally? It can be both

Clinical course of disease is how it behaves over time, what is acute?

Less than 6 months, sudden, short term.

Clinical course of disease is how it behaves over time, what is chronic?

clinical course that is longer than 6 months, long developing gradually, persistant health issues over time requiring reoccuring treatment.

What is atrophy?

a decrease in the size of muscle cells which is ultimately a decrease in size of muscle. These cells are not dead, they just have a reduced functional capacity.

Categories of atrophy.

•disuse

•denervation

•inadequate nutrition

•loss of endocrine stimulation

•ischemia (decreased blood flow)

What is hypertrophy?

An increase in muscle cell size then muscle mass due to over meeting workload of muscles.

What is an example of physiologic(Normal healthy functioning) hypertrophy ?

•↑ in muscle mass

        r/t exercise

•uterine & breast enlargement

   during pregnancy

What is an example of pathological (a disease state causing issues) hyerptrophy ?

Examples:

•urinary bladder r/t obstruction

•left ventricular hypertrophy ( Mass takes up space of ventricle decreasing actual amount of volume that is able to fill it)

   (LVH)

What is an example of compensatory Hypertrophy?

increase in size of an organ or tissue when called upon to do additional work or to perform the work of destroyed tissue or of a paired organ. ( Remaining lung/kidney picking up work for damaged pair)

What is hyperplasia?

An increase or growth in number of cell which results in increase in mass of organ or tissue as well.

What is a physiological example of hyperplasia?

Hormonal

•breast enlargement during puberty

•uterine & breast enlargement during pregnancy

•increase in uterine lining during menstrual cycle

What is a pathological example of hyperplasia?

•skin warts (produced by viruses)

•endometrial hyperplasia (abnormal growth of uterine lining)(Excess estrogen and abnormal bleeding leading to cancer)

•atypical hyperplasia of the breast (Breast cancer)

•benign prostatic hyperplasia (can develop into prostate cancer)

What is a compensatory example of hyperplasia?

•regeneration of liver tissue

•wound healing

•hyperkeratosis e.g. callus

What is metaplasia?

•reversible replacement of one type of cell for another, increases risk for cancer

examples are changes that happened in respiratory tract when people smoke Cilliated columnar cells are irritated by the smoke and turn into stratified squamous epithelial cells to handle the smoke.

another example is the Gi tract where people who have barrets esophagus normal squamous epithelial cells turn into columnar cells to handle the. chronic acid

What is dysplasia?

•abnormal disordered change in size, shape & organization

•may/may not develop into cancer

•examples

Examples of Physical cellular injury

•mechanical forces

temperature extremes

•electrical injuries

Examples of radiation cellular injjry

•nonionizing

•ultraviolet

•ionizing

Examples of chemical cellular injury

•drugs

•lead

•mercury

examples of cellular injury

•Biologic agents

•bacteria

•viruses

•parasites

•Nutritional imbalances

Major mechanisms of cell injury?

Effects of most injurious agents:

•free radical formation

•loss of calcium homeostasis

•hypoxia and ATP depletion

What is hypoxia? The single most common and important cause of cell injury!!

a lack of oxygen delivery or presence in the tissues/cells.

what causes this

: •insufficient oxygen in the air

•respiratory disease (COPD, asthma)

•anemia (↓ RBCs)

•ischemia (↓ blood flow)

•inability of cells to use oxygen

What is apoptosis?

Programmed cell death/ cell suicide, it is a normal occurance which helps control aging cells and eliminates worn out cells or cells with genetic defects.

Sodium

• regulated by Aldosterone

• ANP (atrial naturetic peptide)

• anti-diuretic hormone

has a role in nerve and muscle function

regulates fluid in an outside of the cell

What is hyponatremia?

A low concentration of sodium in the blood.

CAUSED BY N O N A (open ended)

What disorder does this report?

S – stupor

A – anorexia (nausea/vomiting)

       attitude changes (confusion)

L – lethargy, loss of appetite

T – tendon reflexes ↓

L – limp muscles (weakness)

O – orthostatic hypotension

S – seizures/headache

S – stomach cramping, diarrhea

Hyponatremia

What is the concept of respiratory acidosis? and how does the kidneys compensate

•Excess CO₂  in the blood d/t bradypnea (slow breathing)

CO₂:  Increase

  pH:  Decrease

•How do the kidneys compensate?

• Hold onto bicarbonate ions and

• excecrete H+ ions into acidic urine

What are the causes of respiratory acidosis?

Causes: “DEPRESS” breathing

D – drugs (opiates, sedatives, anestheshia)

       diseases of neuromuscular

       system

E - edema

P - pneumonia

R – respiratory center in the

       brain (head injury)

E - emboli

S – spasms of bronchial tubes d/t

      asthma

S – sac (alveolar) elasticity d/

      COPD

Signs and symptoms of Respiratory Acidosis?

• Hypoventilation → Hypoxia

• Rapid, Shallow Respirations

• decrease in BP with vasodilation

• Headache

• Hyperkalemia

• Dysrythmia due to K+

• Drowsiness, Dizziness, disorientation

• Muscle weakness, hyperreflexia

What is the concept of respiratory alkalosis ? and how do the kidneys compensate

•Expelling too much CO₂ d/t tachypnea (rapid breathing)

CO₂:  decreases

  pH:  increases

The kidney’s hold on to H+ ions and eliminate HC03 through the urine.

Causes of Respiratory alkalosis?

Causes: “TACHYPNEA”

T – temperature ↑ (fever)

A – aspirin toxicity

C – controlled mechanical breathing

H - hyperventilation

Y – hYsteria (anxietY)

P – pain

N – neurological injuries

E – emboli & edema (pulmonary)

A – asthma d/t hyperventilation

Physical activity

Signs and symptoms of Respiratory Alkalosis

• Seizures

• Deep rapid breathing

• Hyperventilation

• Tachycardia

• decrease or normal BP

• Hypokalemia

• Numbness and tingliness of extremities

• Lethargiy and confusion

• light headedness

• nausea, vomitting

What is the basic concept of Metabolic Acidosis? and how do the lungs compensate?

•↑ build up of acid OR

    excessive loss of HCO₃^-

HCO₃^-:  Decreased

     pH:  Decrease

How do the lungs compensate

By blowing off CO2 to push body out of an acidic state, and

the Kidneys will reserve HC03 and execrete H+ in the urine

What causes metabolic acidosis

Causes: “ACIDODIC”

A – aspirin toxicity

C – carbs not metabolized

       (↑ production of ketoacids)

I  – insufficient kidney function

D – diarrhea

 SHOCK AND DKA(WHY)

Manifestations of Metabolic Acidosis

• Headache

• Decreased BP

• Hyperkalemia

• Muscle twitching

• Warm flushed skin (vasodilation)

• Nausea, vomitting diarrhea

• changes in LOC (confusion drowsiness)

• Kussmaul Respirations (compensatory hyperventilation)

What is the basic concept of Metabolic alkalosis? and how do the lungs compensate?

•↑ loss of acids (H⁺)

•↑ amount of HCO₃^- in the body

• OR both

HCO₃^-:  Increase

     pH:  Increase

•How do the lungs compensate?

hold onto the CO2

and kidneys will hold on to H+ ions and excrete HCO3 through the urine

What causes metabolic Alkalosis?

•diuretic therapy

•severe vomiting

•excessive gastric suctioning

•overuse of antacids

what are the manifestations of Metabolic alkalosis?

• Restlesness followed by lethargy

• Dysrythmias (tachycardia)

• Compensatory hypoventilaion

• Confusion ( decrease in LOC, dizzy, irritable)

• Nausea vomitting

• Tremors, muscle cramps, tingling of fingers and toes

• Hypokalemia