Supply Chain Management

Which of the following is NOT a stage within a typical supply chain?
A) Customers
B) Retailers
C) Wholesalers/Distributors
D) Manufactures
E) All of the above are stages of the typical supply chain

E) All of the Above are stages of the typical supply chain

Which of the following is NOT a stage within a typical supply chain?
A) Customers
B) Retailers
C) Wholesalers/Distributors
D) Merchandisers
E) Component/Raw material suppliers

D) Merchandisers

Supply Chain profitability is
A) not correlated to the value generated by the various stages of the supply chain
B) the total profit to be shared across tall supply chain stages
C) the difference between the revenue generated from the customer and the overall cost across the supply chain
D) the total revenue generated by the distributor stage of the supply chain
E) B and C only

D) the total revenue generated by the distributor stage of the supply chain

Successful supply chain management requires which of the following decision phases?
A) Supply chain strategy/design
B) Supply chain planning
C) Supply chain operation
D) all of the above
E) A and B only

D) all of the above

The decision phases in a supply chain include?
A) production scheduling
B) customer relationship management
C) supply chain operation
D) supply chain orientation
E) all of the above

C) supply chain operation

The cycle view of a supply chain holds that
A) the processes in a supply chain are divided into 2 categories
B) the processes in a supply chain are divided into a series of activities performed at the interface between successive stages
C) all processes in a supply chain are initiated in response to a customer order
D) all processes in a supply chain are performed in the anticipation of customers orders
E) None of the above are true

B) the processes in a supply chain are divided into a series of activities performed at the interface between successive stages

The push/pull view of a supply chain holds that
A) the processes in a supply chain are divided into a series of activities performed at the interface between successive stages
B) all processes in a supply chain are initiated in response to a customer order
C) all responses in a supply chain are performed in anticipation of customer orders
D) the processes in a supply chain are divided into 2 categories depending on whether they are initiated in response to or in anticipation of customer needs
E) none of the above are true

D) the processes in a supply chain are divided into 2 categories depending on whether they are initiated in response to or in anticipation of customer needs

which of the following is not a cycle is the supply chain cycle view?
A) Analysis cycle
B) Customer order cycle
C) Replenishment cycle
D) Manufacturing cycle
E) Procurement cycle

A) Analysis cycle

which of the following is not a cycle in the supply chain cycle view?
A) Customer order cycle
B) Replenishment cycle
C) Manufacturing cycle
D) Procurement cycle
E) all of the above are part of the supply chain

E) all of the above are part of the supply chain

The customer order cycle occurs at the?
A) customer/retailer interface
B) retailer/distributor interface
C) manufacturer/supplier interface
D) manufacturer/supplier interface
E) none of the above

A) customer/retailer interface

Which of the following is not a process in the customer order cycle?
A) Customer arrival
B) Customer order entity
C) Customer order fulfillment
D) Customer order receiving
E) All are processes in the customer order cycle

E) All are processes in the customer order cycle

Customer arrival refers to?
A) the point in time when the customer has access to choices and makes decisions regarding a purchase
B) the customer informing the retailer of what they want to purchase and the retailer allocating product to the customer
C) the process where product is prepared and sent to the customer
D) the process where the customer receives the products and takes ownership
E) non of the above

A) the point in time when the customer has access to choices and makes decisions regarding a purchase

The objective of the customer arrival process is to?
A) get the correct orders to customers by the promised due date at the lowest possible cost
B) maintain a record of product receipt and complete payment
C) maximize the conversation of customer arrivals to customer orders
D) ensure that orders are quickly and accurately entered and communicated to other affected supply chain processes

C) maximize the conversation of customer arrivals to customer orders

Customer order entry is?
A) the point in time when the customer has access to choices and make a decision regarding a purchase
B) the customer informing the retailer of what they want to purchase and the retailer allocating the product to the customer
C) the process where the product is prepared and sent to the customer
D) the process where the customer receives the product and takes ownership
E) non of the above

B) the customer informing the retailer of what they want to purchase and the retailer allocating the product to the customer

The objective of customer order entry is to?
A) get the correct orders to customers by the promised due date at the lowest possible cost
B) maintain a record of product receipt and complete payment
C)Maximize the conversation of customer arrivals to customer orders
D) ensure that orders are quickly and accurately entered and communicated to other affected supply chain processes
E) None of the above

D) ensure that orders are quickly and accurately entered and communicated to other affected supply chain processes

Customer order fulfillment refers to?
A) the point in time when the customer has access to choices and makes a decision regarding a purchase
B) the customer informing the retailer of what they want to purchase and the retailer allocating product to the customer
C) the process where product is prepared and sent to the customer
D) the process where the customer receives the product and takes ownership
E) none of the above

C) the process where product is prepared and sent to the customer

The objective of customer order fulfillment is to?
A) get the correct orders to customers by the promised due date at the lowest possible cost .
B)maintain a record of product receipt and complete payment
C) maximize the conversation of customer arrivals to customer orders
D) ensure that orders are quickly and accurately entered and communicated to other affected supply chain processes
E) none of the above

A) get the correct orders to customers by the promised due date at the lowest possible cost .

Customer order receiving is?
A) the point in time when the customer has access to choices and makes decision regarding a purchase
B) the customer informing the retailer of what they want to purchase and the retailer allocates product to the customer.
C) the process where the product is prepared and sent to the customer
D) the process where the customer receives the product and takes ownership
E) none of the above

D) the process where the customer receives the product and takes ownership

the replenishment cycle occurs at the?
A) customer/retailer interface
B) retailer/distributor interface
C) distributor/manufacturer interface
D) manufacturer/supplier interface
E) non of the above

B) retailer/distributor interface

the processes involved in the replenishment cycle include?
A) retail order receiving
B) retail order entry
C) retail order trigger
D) retail order fullfilment
E) all of the above

E) all of the above

The processes included in the replenishment cycle include all of the following except?
A) Retail order receiving
B) retail order entry
C) retail order trigger
D) retail order fullfilment
E) none of the above

E) none of the above

The processes included in the replenishment cycle include?
A) order arrival
B) production scheduling
C) retail trigger
D) manufacturing
E) receiving

C) retail trigger

The replenishment cycle is initiated when?
A) the customer walks into the supermarket
B) the customer calls a mail order telemarketing center
C) customers load items intended for purchase into their carts
D) a product is received into a stock at a store
E) none of the above

E) none of the above

The manufacturing cycle occurs at the?
A) customer/retailer interface
B) retailer/distributor interface
C) distributor/manufacturer interface
D) manufacturer/supplier interface
E) none of the above

C) distributor/manufacturer interface

The processes involved in the manufacturing cycle include?
A) receiving
B) manufacturing and shipping
C) production scheduling
D) order fulfillment
E) all of the above

E) all of the above

The processes involved in the manufacturing cycle include?
A) order trigger
B) production scheduling
C) order fulfillment
D) order entry
E) manufacturing order analysis

B) production scheduling

The production scheduling process in the manufacturing cycle is similar to the?
A) order receiving process is the replenishment cycle
B) order fulfillment process in the replenishment cycle
C) order entry process in the replenishment cycle
D) order trigger process in the replenishment cycle
E) none of the above

C) order entry process in the replenishment cycle

The manufacturing and shipping process in the manufacturing cycle is equivalent to the?
A) order receiving process in the replenishment cycle
B) order fulfillment process is the replenishment cycle
C) order entry process is the replenishment cycle
D) order trigger process is the replenishment cycle
E) none of the above

B) order fulfillment process is the replenishment cycle

The procurement cycle occurs at the?
A) customer/retailer interface
B) retailer/distributor interface
C) distributor/manufacturer interface
D) manufacturer/supplier interface
E) none of the above

D) manufacturer/supplier interface

The relationship between the manufacturer and supplier during the procurement cycle is very similar to the relationship between?
A) customer and retailer
B) retailer and dsitributor
C) distributor and manufacturer
D) manufacturer and customer

C) distributor and manufacturer

The cycle view of the supply chain is useful when considering operational decisions, because?
A) it categorizes processes based on whether they are initiated in response to or in anticipation of customer orders
B) it specifies the roles and responsibilities of each member of the supply chain
C)processes are identified as either reactive or speculative
D) it focuses on processes that are external to the firm
E) it focuses on processes that are internal to the firm

B) it specifies the roles and responsibilities of each member of the supply chain

The push/pull view of the supply chain is useful when considering strategic decisions relating to supply chain design, because ?
A) it categorizes processes based whether they are initiated in response to or in anticipation of customer orders
B) it specifies the roles and responsibilities of each member of the supply chain
C)it clearly defines the processes involved and the owners of each process
D0 it focuses on the processes that are external to the firm
E) it focuses on the processes that are internal to the firm

A) it categorizes processes based whether they are initiated in response to or in anticipation of customer orders

Which of the following statements about the pull processes is accurate?
A) may also be referred to as speculative process
B) execution is initiated in anticipation of customer orders
C) at the time of execution, demand must be forcast
D) may also be referred to as reactive processes
E) none of the above is accurate

D) may also be referred to as reactive processes

A companies competitive strategy
A) defines the set of customer needs that it seeks to satisfy through its products and services
B) specifies the portfolio of new products that it will try to develop
C) specifies how the market will be segmented and how the product will be positioned, priced and promoted
D) determines the nature of procurement and transportation of materials as well as manufacture and distribution of the product
E) determines how it will obtain and maintain the appropriate set of skills and abilities to meet customer needs

A) defines the set of customer needs that it seeks to satisfy through its products and services

A company's product development strategy
A) defines the set of customer needs that it seeks to satisfy through its products and services
B) specifies the portfolio of new products that it will try to develop
C) specifies how the market will be segmented and how the product will be positioned, priced and promoted
D)determines the nature of procurement and transportation of materials as well as manufacture and distribution of the product
E) determines how it will obtain and maintain the appropriate set of skills and abilities to meet customer needs

B) specifies the portfolio of new products that it will try to develop

A company's marketing and sales strategy
A) defines the set of customer needs that it seeks to satisfy through its products and services
B) specifies the portfolio of new products that it will try to develop
C) specifies how the market will be segmented and how the product will be positioned, priced and promoted
D)determines the nature of procurement and transportation of materials as well as manufacture and distribution of the product
E) determines how it will obtain and maintain the appropriate set of skills and abilities to meet customer needs

C) specifies how the market will be segmented and how the product will be positioned, priced and promoted

A company's supply chain strategy
A) defines the set of customer needs that it seeks to satisfy through its products and services
B) specifies the portfolio of new products that it will try to develop
C) specifies how the market will be segmented and how the product will be positioned, priced and promoted
D)determines the nature of procurement and transportation of materials as well as manufacture and distribution of the product
E) determines how it will obtain and maintain the appropriate set of skills and abilities to meet customer needs

D)determines the nature of procurement and transportation of materials as well as manufacture and distribution of the product

Which of the following defines the set of customer needs that a company seeks to satisfy through its products and services?
A) competitive strategy
B) product development strategy
C) marketing and sales strategy
D) supply chain strategy
E) none of the above

A) competitive strategy

A supply chain strategy involves decisions regarding
A) inventory
B) transportation
C) operating facilities
D) information flows
E) all of the above

E) all of the above

Which of the following is not a key to success or failure of a company
A) the competitive strategy and all functional strategies must fit together to form a coordinated overall strategy
B) the competitive strategy and all functional strategies operate independently of each other
C) the different functions in a company must appropriately structure their processes and resources to be able to execute strategies successfully
D) each functional strategy must support other functional strategies and help a firm reach its competitive strategy goal
E) all of the above are keys to success

B) the competitive strategy and all functional strategies operate independently of each other

Which of the following are basic steps to achieving strategic fit?
A) understanding the customer and supply uncertainty.
B) understanding the supply chain capabilities
C) achieving strategic fit
D) all of the above are basic steps to achieving strategic fit
E) none of the above are a basic step to achieving strategic fit

D) all of the above are basic steps to achieving strategic fit

The uncertainty of a customer demand for a product is the
A) rate of strategic uncertainty
B) demand uncertainty
C) implied demand uncertainty
D) average forecast error
E) none of the above

B) demand uncertainty

The uncertainty that exists due to portion of demand that the supply chain is required to meet is the
A) rate of strategic uncertainty
B) demand uncertainty
C) implied demand uncertainty
D) average forecast error
E) none of the above

C) implied demand uncertainty

Which of the following customer needs will cause implied uncertainty of demand to decrease
A) range of quantity required increases
B) lead time decreases
C) variety of products required increase
D) required service level increases
E) none of the above

E) none of the above

Which of the following customer needs will cause implied uncertainty of demand to increase
A) product margin
B) lead time decreases
C) average stockout rate
D) average forced season end markdown
E) none of the above

B) lead time decreases

The first step in achieving strategic fit between competitive and supply chain strategies is to?
A) understand the supply chain and map it on the responsiveness spectrum
B) understand customers and supply chain uncertainty
C) math supply chain responsiveness with the implied uncertainty of demand
D) ensure that all functional strategies within the supply chain support the supply chains level of responsiveness
E) none of the above

B) understand customers and supply chain uncertainty

The second step in achieving strategic fit between competitive and supply chain strategies is to
A) understand the supply chain and map it on the responsiveness spectrum
B) understand customers and supply chain uncertainty
C) match supply chain responsiveness with the implied uncertainty of demand
D) ensure that all functional strategies within the supply chain support the supply chains level of responsiveness
E) none of the above

A) understand the supply chain and map it on the responsiveness spectrum

The final step is achieving strategic fit between competitive and supply chain strategies is to
A) understand the supply chain and map it on the responsiveness spectrum
B) understand customers and supply chain uncertainty
C) match supply chain responsiveness with the implied uncertainty of demand
D) ensure that all functional strategies within the supply chain support the supply chains level of responsiveness
E) none of the above

C) match supply chain responsiveness with the implied uncertainty of demand

Supply Chain Responsiveness includes the ability to do which of the following
A) understand customers and supply chain
B) match supply chain responsiveness with the implied uncertainty of demand
C) meet short lead times
D) ensure that all functional strategies within the supply chain support the supply chains level of responsiveness
E) all of the above

C) meet short lead times

The cost of making and delivering a product to the customer is referred to as
A) supply chain responsiveness
B) supply chain efficiency
C) cost responsiveness efficient frontier
D) implied uncertainty
E) none of the above

B) supply chain efficiency

The curve that shows the lowest possible cost for a given level of responsiveness is referred to as the
A) supply chain responsiveness curve
B) supply chain efficiency curve
C) cost responsiveness efficient frontier
D) responsiveness spectrum
E) none of the above

C) cost responsiveness efficient frontier

A firm that is not on the cost responsiveness efficient frontier can improve
A) both responsiveness and cost performance
B) only responsiveness
C)only cost performance
D) responsiveness, but not cost performance
E) neither responsiveness nor cost performance

A) both responsiveness and cost performance

A graph with two axes with implied uncertainty along the horizontal axis and responsiveness along the vertical axis is referred to as the
A) implied uncertainty spectrum
B) responsiveness spectrum
C) uncertainty/responsiveness map
D) zone of strategic fit
E) none of the above

C) uncertainty/responsiveness map

The relationship where increasing implied uncertainty from customers and supply sources is best served by increasing responsiveness from the supply chain is known as the
A) implied uncertainty spectrum
B) responsiveness spectrum
C) uncertainty/responsiveness map
D) zone of strategic fit
E) none of the above

D) zone of strategic fit

The drive for strategic fit should come from
A) the supply chain manager
B) the strategic planning department
C) the highest levels of the organization, such as the CEO
D) middle management
E) sales and marketing

C) the highest levels of the organization, such as the CEO

The important points to remember about achieving strategic fit are
A) there is one best supply chain strategy for all competitive strategies
B) there is no right supply chain strategy independent of the competitive strategy
C) there is a right supply chain strategy for a given competitive strategy
D) all of the above
E) B and C only

E) B and C only

The preferable supply chain strategy for a firm that sells multiple products and serves customer segments with very different needs is to
A) set up independent supply chains for each different product or customer segment
B) set up a supply chain that meets the needs of the highest product or customer segment
C)tailor the supply chain to best meet the needs of each product's demand.
D) set up a supply chain that meets the needs of customer segment with the highest implied uncertainty
E) set up supply chain that meets the needs of products with the highest implied uncertainty

C)tailor the supply chain to best meet the needs of each product's demand.

Which of the following would not be a demand and supply characteristic toward the beginning stages of a products life cycle
A) demand has become more certain and supply is predictable
B) margins are lower due to an increase in competitive pressure
C) product availability is crucial to capturing the market
D) price becomes a significant factor in customer choice
E) none of the above

D) product availability is crucial to capturing the market

Which of the following would not be a demand and supply characteristic in the later stages of a products life cycle
A) demand has become more certain and supply is predictable
B) margins are lower due to an increase in competitive pressure
C) product availability is crucial to capturing the market
D) price becomes a significant factor in customer choice
E) all of the about are characteristics of the later stages

C) product availability is crucial to capturing the market

The functions and stages that devise an integrated strategy with a share objective are referred to
A) competitive strategy
B) supply chain strategy
C) scope of strategic fit
D) scope of marketing strategy
E) scope of product development strategy

C) scope of strategic fit

A ________ strategy specifies the portfolio of new products that a company will try to develop.
A) Product Development
B) Marketing and Sales
C) Supply Chain
D) Finance

A) Product Development

A ________ strategy specifies how the market will be segmented and how the product will be positioned, priced, and promoted.
A) Product Development
B) Marketing and Sales
C) Supply Chain
D) Finance

B) Marketing and Sales

Between 1993 and 2006, Dell's competitive strategy was to provide a large variety of customizable products at a reasonable price. Given the focus on customization, Dell's supply chain was designed to
A) be responsive.
B) provide a different product.
C) operate on a low-cost basis.
D) provide sustainable products.

A) be responsive.

efficient supply chains
A) respond quickly to demand
B) have a higher margins because price is not a prime customer driver
C) maintain buffer inventory to deal with demand/supply uncertainty
D) maximize performance at minimum cost

D) maximize performance at minimum cost

With the ________ view, firms attempt to align all operations within a function. In this view, all supply chain functions including sourcing, manufacturing, warehousing, and transportation must align their strategy to minimize total functional cost.
A) Intrafunctional scope
B) Intraoperation scope
C) Interfunctional scope
D) Intercompany scope

B) Intraoperation scope

The key weakness of the ________ view is that different functions within a firm may have conflicting objectives?
A) Intrafunctional scope
B) Intraoperation scope
C) Interfunctional scope
D) Intercompany scope

A) Intrafunctional scope

Which of the following is not a challenge that makes it increasingly difficult for supply chains to achieve strategic fit?
A) globalization
B) changing technology
C) shorter life cycles
D) decreasing product variety

D) decreasing product variety

Which of the following is not a major driver supply chain performance?
A) facilities
B) inventory
C) transportation
D) information
E) all of the above are major drivers of supply chain performance

E) all of the above are major drivers of supply chain performance

Which of the following is not a major driver supply chain performance?
A) Customers
B) facilities
C) inventory
D) transportation
E) information

A) Customers

The places in the supply chain network where product is stored, assembled, or fabricated are known as
A) facilities
B) inventory
C) transportation
D) information
E) customers

A) facilities

all raw materials, work in process, and finished goods within a supply chain are known as
A) facilities
B) inventory
C) transportation
D) information
E) customers

B) inventory

Moving inventory from point to point in the supply is known as

A) facilities.
B) inventory.
C) transportation.
D) information.
E) customers.

C) transportation.

The data and analysis concerning facilities, inventory, transportation, and customers throughout the supply chain is known as
A) facilities
B) inventory
C) transportation
D) information
E) customers

D) information

the two major types of facilities are
A) distribution sites and storage sites
B) production sites and distribution sites
C) production sites and storage sites
D) retail sites and distribution sites
E) distribution sites and inventory sites

C) production sites and storage sites

which component of the supply chain decision making framework would be established first
A) customer strategy
B) supply chain strategy
C) supply chain structure
D) competitive strategy
E) replenishment strategy

D) competitive strategy

which component of the supply chain decision making framework would be established second
A) customer strategy
B) supply chain strategy
C) supply chain structure
D) competitive strategy
E) replenishment strategy

B) supply chain strategy

which of the following is not a component of facilities decisions
A) warehouse methodology
B) forecasting methodology
C) operations methodology
D) capacity
E) location

B) forecasting methodology

Which of the following statements concerning decisions regarding location of facilities is false?
A) deciding where a company will locate its facilities constitutes a large part of design of a supply chain
B) a basic trade off here is whether to centralized to gain gain economics of scale or decentralized to become more responsive by being closer to the customer
C) companies must also consider a host of issues related to the various characteristics of the local area in which the facility may be situated
D) all of these statements are true
E) none of theses are true

D) all of these statements are true

Which of the following is not an issue companies need to consider in facility location decisions
A) quality of workers
B) product development
C) proximity to customers and the rest of the network
D) cost of facility
E) tax effects

B) product development

Which of the following would be a characteristic or a facility with little excess capacity
A) allows a facility to be very flexible and to respond to wide swings in the demands placed on it
B) costs money and therefore can decrease efficiency
C) requires proximity to customers and the rest of the network
D) will likely be more efficient per unit of product it produces
E) none of the above

D) will likely be more efficient per unit of product it produces

The following warehousing methodology is one in which goods are not actually warehoused in a facility. Instead, trucks from suppliers, each carrying a different type of product, deliver goods to a facility. There the inventory is broken into smaller lots and quickly loaded onto store-bound trucks that carry a variety of products, some from each of the supplier trucks.
A) warehouse unit storage
B) stock keeping unit (sku) storage
C) job lot storage
D) cross docking
E) none of the above

D) cross docking

All of the following are components of inventory decisions except
A) cycle inventory
B) safety inventory
C) seasonal inventory
D) sourcing
E) all of the above are components

E) all of the above are components

All of the following are components of inventory decisions except
A) capacity
B) cycle inventory
C) safety inventory
D) seasonal inventory
E) sourcing

A) capacity

The average amount of inventory used to satisfy demand between receipt of supplier shipments is referred to as
A) cycle inventory
B) safety inventory
C) seasonal inventory
D) sourcing
E) none of the above

A) cycle inventory

The inventory that is built up to counter predictable variability in demand is called
A) cycle inventory
B) safety inventory
C) seasonal inventory
D) sourcing
E) none of the above

C) seasonal inventory

The inventory held in case demand exceeds expectation in order to counter uncertainty is called
A) cycle inventory
B) safety inventory
C) seasonal inventory
D) sourcing
E) none of the above

B) safety inventory

The set of business processes required to purchase goods and services is known as
A) cycle inventory
B) safety inventory
C) seasonal inventory
D) sourcing
E) none of the above

D) sourcing

Seasonal inventory should be used when
A) a company can rapidly change the rate of its production system at a very low cost
B) changing the rate of production is expensive when workers must be hired or fired
C) adjusting to a period of low demand without incurring large cost
D) the world is perfectly predictable
E) production rate is flexible

A) a company can rapidly change the rate of its production system at a very low cost

Sourcing involves

A) deciding the tasks that will be outsourced and those that will be performed within the firm.
B) deciding whether to source from a single supplier or a portfolio of suppliers.
C) identifying the set of criterion that will be used to select suppliers and measure their performance.
D) selecting suppliers and negotiating contracts with them.
E) all of the above

E) all of the above

which of the following are key components of transportation decisions when designing and operating a supply chain
A) software selection
B) mode of transportation
C) source selection
D) warehouse selection
E) none of the above

D) warehouse selection

When all the different stages of a supply chain work toward the objective of maximizing total supply chain profitability, rather than each stage devoting itself to its own profitability without considering total supply chain profit, it is known as
A) supply chain coordination
B) forecasting
C) aggregate planning
D) revenue management
E) pricing

A) supply chain coordination

The art and science of making projections about what future demands and conditions will be is
A) supply chain coordination
B) forecasting
C) aggregate planning
D) revenue management
E) pricing

B) forecasting

The process by which a firm decides how much to charge customers for its goods and services is
A) supply chain coordination
B) forecasting
C) aggregate planning
D) revenue management
E) pricing

E) pricing

Which of the following are technologies that share and analyze information in the supply chain
A) electronic data interchange
B) internet
C) enterprise resource planning
D) supply chain management software
E) all of the above

E) all of the above

The ________ strategy results in a peak during the discount week, often followed by a steep drop in demand during the following weeks.
A) Everyday low pricing
B) High-low pricing
C) Fixed price
D) Menu pricing

B) High-low pricing

Pricing directly affects revenues but can also affect production costs and inventories depending upon its impact on consumer demand. Which of the following is not listed as a metric a manager should track?

A) Inventory turnover
B) Profit margin
C) Days sales outstanding
D) Average sales price

A) Inventory turnover

Amazon uses different prices for the products that are purchased from the company — often for the speed of the shipping. What is the name of this pricing scheme?
A) Everyday low pricing
B) High-low pricing
C) Fixed price
D) Menu pricing

D) Menu pricing