Unit 5 Revolutions: Ideas, Nations, and the First Industrial Transformation (1750–1900)

Enlightenment

A 17th–18th century intellectual movement (especially in Europe) arguing that society and government could be understood and improved through reason, observation, and debate rather than tradition or religious authority alone.

Reason (Enlightenment emphasis)

The use of rational thinking and evidence-based argument to evaluate claims and reform society, modeled on habits of the Scientific Revolution.

Absolutist state (absolutism)

A political system in which a monarch claims broad, centralized power, often justified by religion, tradition, and inherited hierarchy.

Natural rights

The idea that people possess certain rights simply by being human, not because a ruler or government grants them.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that legitimate political authority ultimately comes from the people (the nation), not from divine right or inheritance.

Social contract

The concept that government is based on an agreement between rulers and ruled; if a government violates that agreement, it can lose legitimacy.

Separation of powers

The division of government authority into distinct branches (e.g., executive, legislative, judicial) to limit power and reduce the risk of tyranny.

Rule of law

The principle that rulers and citizens are accountable to established laws, rather than arbitrary personal power.

Religious toleration

The belief that governments should permit diverse religious beliefs and practices and avoid persecution for religious reasons.

Freedom of expression

The idea that open speech and debate (and reduced censorship) are necessary for truth-seeking and progress.

Deism

A belief in a creator who does not intervene miraculously in everyday life; often associated with Enlightenment-era critiques of church power without full rejection of religion.

Print culture

The expanded circulation of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and translations that helped Enlightenment ideas spread rapidly through cities and ports.

Salons / coffeehouses / academies

Key social institutions where elites and middle-class professionals met to debate ideas, share writings, and build intellectual reputations.

Atlantic connections

Networks linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas through trade, migration, and empire, enabling Enlightenment and revolutionary ideas to circulate across the Atlantic world.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinker who argued that governments are legitimate when they protect natural rights and that people may resist unjust rule.

Thomas Hobbes

Political philosopher who emphasized the need for strong authority to prevent chaos and violent disorder, shaping debates about order versus liberty.

Montesquieu

Enlightenment thinker who argued that separating governmental powers and creating checks helps prevent tyranny.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who emphasized popular sovereignty and the “general will,” inspiring more radical democratic language and debates about majority power.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Writer who argued that women should have education and civic equality, exposing contradictions in claims of “universal” rights.

Adam Smith

Economist who argued that market exchange and division of labor create prosperity and who criticized heavy mercantilist controls, supporting freer trade arguments.

Nationalism

The belief that people sharing a common identity (language, history, culture, religion, or political experience) form a nation that deserves political self-rule.

Patriotism (vs. nationalism)

Loyalty or affection for a country; unlike nationalism, it is not necessarily a political claim that the nation must possess sovereignty.

Industrial Revolution

The shift (beginning mid-to-late 18th century) from hand production and rural household labor to machine production, factories, and fossil-fuel energy, with Britain as the first major site of sustained industrialization.

Cottage industry (putting-out system)

A preindustrial production system where merchants supplied raw materials to households, and families produced goods (often textiles) at home.

Factory system

An industrial labor and production arrangement that centralized workers and machines in dedicated buildings, increasing standardization, speed, and time discipline.