Topic 8: Conservation and Restoration

Biodiversity

It has ecological, socio-economic and intrinsic values.

Species extinction rates

These are faster today than in the past.

Habitat loss, invasive alien species, pollution, population growth, overexploitation, and climate change

These are the primary drivers of biodiversity loss.

Biodiversity loss

This has ecological, economic, and societal impacts.

Biodiversity Conservation

Maintaining the diversity of species, habitats, and the interrelationships between organisms and the environment to keep ecosystems healthy and functioning.

Biological resources, ecosystem services, social and spiritual benefits

Importance of conserving biodiversity

True

There is a need to conserve all levels of diversity (genetic, species, ecosystems).

Genetic

Coral propagation through sexual reproduction is an example of protecting diversity at this level.

Species and Populations

The establishment of coral hatcheries and nurseries is an example of protecting diversity at this level.

Ecosystem

Placing coral reefs under legal protection, and coral reef restoration is protecting diversity at this level.

Genetic rescue

One way of maintaining genetic diversity.

Genetic rescue

The intended introduction of (unrelated) individuals from other populations to reduce the genetic load (Biere et al. 2012). Used to address problems of low genetic diversity.

Genetic load

A result of inbreeding and genetic drift (alleles with slight defects) accumulate in small population causing low mean population fitness.

Assisted migration

A common example of genetic rescue that involves the introduction of new individuals from a different population.

Controversial

These are more _____________ examples of genetic rescue involving genetic engineering, hybridization, and de-extinction.

Guidelines for Genetic Restoration

1. Collect locally, if at all possible.

2. Match climatic and environmental conditions between collection and restoration sites.

3. Determine the breeding systems of restoration species.

4. Determine the ploidy systems of restoration species.

5. Minimize ‘‘unconscious’’ selection of available propagules.

Collect locally

This is recommended for the collection of source material to reduce the chance for the genetic ‘‘integrity’’ of the restored population to be compromised.

Entire planted populations

This advised to harvest or select from these as often as possible rather than an “unconscious” selection.

Ex situ and in situ

Two types of Conservation

Ex situ

Conservation of the components of biological

diversity “off-site,” or outside their natural surroundings.

• Examples: zoos, botanical gardens, aquaria; storage of tissues, seeds, pollens, semen, embryos, DNA); field gene banks or livestock parks

In situ

Conservation of species, habitats, or ecosystems “on-site,” or in their natural surroundings.

• Examples: nature reserves or protected areas, wildlife refuges, habitat management and/or restoration

Species restoration and habitat/ecosystem restoration

Types of Restoration

Species restoration

Involves captive breeding programs and restocking/reintroductions (giant clams, corals, etc.).

Habitat/ecosystem restoration

Lakes, Rivers and streams, Wetlands (e.g. marshes, mangroves, etc.), & Marine ecosystems (e.g. seagrass, coral reefs).

Restoring species interactions

These are community restoration strategies.

Pollination

Restoring plant-pollinator relationship

Dispersal

Restoring interactions between seeds or organisms that need to move across lanscapes.

Herbivory and predation

Restoring these species interactions to regulate population size.

Competition

Restoration ensures balance among species competing.

Trophic structure and dynamics

Refers to the food web when restoring species interactions.

Rewilding

The scientific argument for restoring big wilderness based on the regulatory role of large predators (Soule & Noss 1998).

Trophic rewilding

Species introductions to restore top-down trophic interactions and associated trophic cascades to promote self-regulating biodiverse ecosystems.

• E.g. reintroduction of missing keystone species, such as large carnivores and large herbivores.

Functional replacement

The introduction of non-native species as ecological proxies for species that became extinct centuries or millennia ago.

Community-level restoration

Primary principles behind conservation strategies conducting restoration at this level:

• Maintaining the water cycle and hydrology

• Soil productivity

• Habitat restoration

• Natural disturbance dynamics

• Fire dynamics

• Ecological succession

Protected Areas / Nature Reserves, Habitat Restoration, Integrated Management

Examples of Spatial Management.

Ecosystem-based management (EBM), Ridge-to-Reef approaches, Integrated coastal management (ICM)

Examples of Integrated Management.

Protected Areas / Nature Reserves

A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values (IUCN, 2008).

Nature Reserves

Refer to areas placed under protection by legal means. Usually composed of a strict protection zone or core zone, and a buffer zone wherein human activities are regulated.

Over 1,800

Number of existing MPAs in the Philippines (Cabral et al., 2014).

604 out of 857 (70%)

Number of municipalities or cities in the 63 provinces in the Philippines with MPAs.

Marine Protected Area

Primary purpose of establishment is to sustain fisheries in adjacent areas (e.g. no-take zones; fish sanctuaries).

~600-1000 km²

Size of the coral reef area in the Kalayaan Island groups. with 30% of the total reef area in the Philippines and has high fisheries productivity.

Philippine (Benham) Rise

A 13-million hectare underwater plateau located off Aurora Province and is part of the Philippines’ continental shelf. This is named after Admiral Andrew Ellicott.

Philippine Rise Marine Resource Reserve (PRMRR)

The Philippine (Benham) Rise is established as such in 2018.

Integrated Management

Addresses human population growth and overconsumption, and threat reduction.

River/lake basin management, Watershed management, Ridge-to-reef, Integrated coastal management (ICM)

Examples of integrated management.

Steps in Assessing Threats in Conservation Planning

1. Priority-setting at the species level

2. Priority-setting at global, regional and local scales

Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) approach, Range-wide priority setting approaches

Two approaches under priority-setting at the species level.

Key Biodiversity Area )KBA approach

Identifies, documents, and protects networks of sites critical for the conservation of global biodiversity. Considers species that are threatened (vulnerability) and species that are geographically concentrated (irreplaceability).

Range-wide priority setting approaches

Uses threat assessment to set conservation priorities over the entire range of individual species (e.g. Tiger Conservation Units and Jaguar Conservation Units).

Key Biodiversity Areas

Areas that contribute significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity. Identified by national constituencies using globally standardized criteria and quantitative thresholds (refer to IUCN’s A Global Standard for the Identification of Key Biodiversity Areas), with than 15,000 identified globally.

228 KBAs (128 terrestrial and 123 marine)

Number of identified KBAs in the Philippines, delineated in 2006 and 2009.

106,000 sq. km.

The total area cover of KBAs in the Philippines.

855 species (396 globally threatened, 398 restricted range, 61 congregatory species

These KBAs are a home to a number of species.

Global, Regional, and Local (Site)

Scales to consider for priority-setting at global, regional and local scales

Global

Identifies the entire planet as the planning universe and then attempts to identify all places (usually regions or eco-regions) that require increased conservation attention

• Examples: WWF’s Global 200 Ecoregions, CI’s Biodiversity Hotspots, WRI’s Frontier Forests, WCS’ Last Wild Places

Regional

Often involves selecting one or a cluster of ecologically defined regions as the planning universe, and establishing a set of geographic priorities and strategies within them (Olson et al. 2001)

• Example: TNC’s ecoregional planning process

Local (Site)

At this scale, examples are: protected areas, conservation reserves, etc.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992

The three main goals of the Convention are:

• Conservation of biological diversity

• Sustainable use of its components

• Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources

Ratified by all countries worldwide, with the exception of Andorra, Brunei Darussalam, the Holy See, Iraq, Somalia, Timor-Leste and the USA.

Andorra, Brunei Darussalam, the Holy See, Iraq, Somalia, Timor-Leste and the USA

Countries that did not ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity.

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 1948

An independent, international organization dedicated to natural resource conservation and the protection of endangered species; based in Gland, Switzerland. Employs a full-time staff of >900 in 50 countries, with a membership of 208 states and government agencies, and more than 1,100 NGOs. The primary source for comparative information on the conservation status of plants and animals at national, regional, and global levels.

World Commission on Protected Area

This is a subsidiary unit of IUCN.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 1973

A cooperative, international program designed to protect wildlife from overexploitation and prevent international trade from further threatening imperiled species; 167 signatory countries.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar), 1971

Addresses the conservation of exceptional and/or threatened wetland habitats and sites and places (Wetlands of International Importance) Signed in Iran in 1971 and entered into force in 1975. Currently, there are 153 contracting parties to the Convention.

1,629 wetland sites (about 1,456,204 km²)

Ramsar protects about these number of sites and its estimated area cover.

UN's Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III 1982)

Establishes a comprehensive framework for use of the ocean and its resources, with 157 signatories.

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris (1972) (UNESCO)

This includes the Great Barrier Reef, the Galapagos Islands, and the Tubbataha Reefs.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animal (CMS) (1979)

It has 129 members states (as of Sep 2019).

R.A. 7586

National Integrated Protected Areas System or NIPAS Act

R.A. 7160

Local Government Code

R.A. 8550

Fisheries Code

E.O. 247 (Regulations on Bioprospecting)

This includes research, collection and utilization of biological and genetic resources.

R.A. 9147

Wildlife Act

DAO 2004-17

Establishing The List of Terrestrial Threatened Species and Their Categories, And The List of Other Wildlife Species Pursuant To Republic Act No. 9147, Otherwise Known As The Wildlife Resources Conservation And Protection Act Of 2001.

DAO 2007-01

Establishing the national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories, and the use of other wildlife species.

Biodiversity Research

This has mostly focus on:

• Patterns and processes

• Ecosystem functioning

• Changes in time

• Conservation, policies, and societal benefits

This has importance in data management, assessment, and monitoring.

Museum specimens

They are used in systematics. And they have emerging uses in surveys of parasites, comparison of heavy metal levels in fish flesh, and more.