258 final (notes)

well-defined problems

initial state, goal state, and permissible operations compeltley specified

• ex. 2+2 =?

ill-defined problems

uncertainty in one or two more components

• ex. write a novel

forms of problems

• peoblems of inducing structure

• problems of transformation

• probems of arrangemente

problems of inducing structure

determine relationship among several given elements

• ex. analogy prblems

• requires 4 steps

what are the 4 steps required to solve problem of inducing structure?

1. encoding → identify appropriate attributes

2. inference → realte 1st and 2nd elements

3. mapping → relate 1st and 3rd elements

4. appication → relate 3rd or 4th elements

problems of transformation

find sequence of operations to transform initial state into goal state

• tower of hanoi

  • skill required: means-end analysis?

problems of arrangement

arrange elements according to a criterion

• ex. engrams, arrange the letters NITRA to make a word

• skills required: genrrate possibiliires, constrain search, retreive solution patterns

what are the 3 requirements fo understanding a problem

1. coherence → representation comprised of parts conencted in a way that makes sense

2. correspondence → internal representation ‘maps well’ onto elements of the problem

3. relationship to background knowledge → problem elements linked to existing knowledge

algorithim

set of operatoons that systematically and exhaustively generates a solution

• ex. whats the mean of 3,4,2,5,3 and 7

heuristics

strategy that often helps generate a solution; do nor garuntee success

• ex. when do u take another card in balckjack

human problem solving (newell &Simon) includes:

• problem space

• inital and intermediate states

• operators

problem space

collection of nodes, each representing a state of knowledge or possible action

• problem solving seen as search through problem space

states

intial and intermediate

operators

links between nodes; consist of funcitons selected to solve problems

• there may be path constraints ruling out some possibilities

general problem solver (newell, shaw, and simon)

computer program intended to simulate human problem solving

• applied means-end analysis → transform, reduce, and apply

  • subgoals create intermediate states that are closer to the goal state

pros and cons of genral problem solver

• succesfully applied to tower of hanoi - logic proofs

• requires well-defined goals/problem spaces to function

• poor simulation of human problem solving → doesnt draw on on stored knowledge, STM limits the number of subgoals

analogies

solving a problem by using a solution to a related problem

• requires → seeing similarity in basic structure of the problems, inferring paproriate solutin for current problem analogous problem

what did Gick and holyoak find regarding experiment with analogies

people can infer solutions from analogies — if they realize hta nalagoy is appropriate (difficult to do so)

• abstraction → participants given multiple similiar analogies were more likely to use analogy

mindlessness

thoughtless application of old ways of thinking to new situations without compeltely considering whether they are suitable

• functional fixedness and mental sets

fucntional fixedness

inability to use objects for other than their most common purpose

mental set

predisposition to solve a problem in a certain way

causes of mindlessness

• repetition of an action becomes automatic

• premature cognitvie commitments→ maintain a pov even if its sub optimal

• education → instruction in only one way of doing tthings, focus on outcome ratehr than learning itself

does past experience help or hinder problem solving by feather

women asked to solve 15 engram puzzles → given either easy or impossible with the last task as moderate

• asked to estimate their chances before attmepting each one → if given the impossible engrams predicted they would do worse

• success may be a self fulfilling prophecy

incubation probelm solving faiitated by time away from it (smith and blackenshi)

participants given reubs puzzles and cues; some slues were misleading

• found that incubation group performed better, were also less likely to remember clues but incubation effect snot consistently found

• if found:

  • release forgettign from mental set/fucntional fixednes

  • reterival of new info by changing context

  • recvoery from fatugue

  • consious roiblm solvng

  • unconsious processes

insight

a kind of problem solving characterized by

• suprisingness, ease, positive affect, feeling of being correct

the entire solution enters awar

insight problems require…

perception of the problem as a whole

reproductive thinking

based on existing associations involving waht is already known

producitve thinking

insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations

causes of isight

• extended (unconsiouc) leaps into thinking

• accelerated mental processing

• short-circuiting of normal reasoning processes

nothing-special view

• insigth does not exist

• insight problems solved without sudden mental restructuring

• and routine problems solved with sudden mental restructuring

non gestaltist vie of insight (janet metcalfe)

insightful problem sovling distinguished by:

• low accuracty in predicitng sucess on insight problems; high accuracy for routine problems

• for insigt problems, successful rpoblem solvers were pessimistic abt their ability; unsuccessful people were optimistic

three process view

• selective enoding insights

• selective comparison inisghts

• selective combination insights

selective-encoding insights

involve dsitnguishing relevant from irrelevant inofrmation

• ex. taking nots during a lecture: whats important

selective comparison insights

involve novel perception of how new information relates to old

• ex. creative use of analogies; learning new definitions

selective combination insights

involve combining selectively encoded and compared information in a novel way

• ex. writing a term paper; solving the candle problem

verbal overshadowing effect

verbal system processing interferes with insight problem solving ability

incidental memory

interpret/diagnose patient data and recall as much as possible

intentinal memory

given patient data, try to remember as much as possible

proceduralization

converting declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge

tactical learning

specific rules learned for specific problems

strategic learning

prolem solving organized in an oprimal way for problems in that domain

• experts developed solutons breadth first → worked out ssub problems recursively before codingwhile novices went depth first→ identify first ptoblem and solved it before moving on

weak-method procedures

used by novices

• domain-independent (can be applied to any domain)

• require substantial mental effort to perform

• virtually identical to menas-end analysis

• ex. drive from toronto to vancouver by just heading west

domain specific procedures

used by experts

• combinations of specific problem solving istuations and a series of complied actions leading to solutions

• relatively automatically triggered

• created by successful repetitions

• ex. drive from toronto to vancouver after developing a plan using a map and considering speed limits to find most efficient route

4 general principles underlying performance improvement:

• has well-defined, specific goals

• is focused

• requires immediate feedback

• requires challenging oneself

if practice had little effect on expertise what is success likely due to

natural talent, general intelligence, and working memory

creativity

te ability to produce novel, useful ideas

convergent thinking

thinking that proceeds toward a single correct answer

• ex. uses for a brick: to create a birdge, to make a house (all involve using a brick for vuilding)

divergent thinking

generating ideas that are different form one another; moving outward from a problem in many different directions

• ex. uses for a brick: a doorstop,to smash a window, to cast a shadow, as a topic of conversation (each idea differs from the other)

stages of creative thought (wallas 1926)

1. preparation → gather info abt the problem; characterized by work

2. incubation → problem set aside; solution may continue to develop unconsiusly

3. illumination → key insight/ new idea emerges

4. verification → confirmation that new idea leads to a solution

divergent production test

make as many and as varied responses to test item as possible

• weak correlation between individuals judged more creative by coworkers and score on this test

• creativiry is discovering new, unanticipated approaches to a problem (more= better)

remote associates test

link 3 words with a common word

• weak correlation between graduate students judged creative by their advisors, and RAT

• creativity depedns on finding nre connections among ideas

consensual assessment

done by expert panel

• ex. artists judge creativity of kids drawings

domain

existing knowledge in a particular area

• ex. physics, music

feild

social context, including social and pubic institutions

• ex. collaborators, mentors, rivals

investment theory

• buy low→ see hidden potential of ideas presumed by others to have little value (person creatively develops potential of idea to be menaingful

• sell high → value of contribution is recognized; move on (person has influence by being a step ahead

component factors of investment theory

• processes of intelligence: ability to redefine problems, and think insightfully

• expertise: backgorund knowledge to draw upon

• imaginitive thinking skills: recognize patterns/use new perspectives

• venture some personality: peristent, willing to take risks

• intinsic motivation: creativity greater when not for pay

• creative environent: encourages creativity

logical rules

apply logical relations to relate stimulus attributes, to determine whetehr a given item is a category member

• conjucntion, disjunctive, conditinal, and biconditional rule

conjunction rule

applies AND operator

• ex. child safety seat mus tbe rear facing until cild is 1 years old AND weighs 10kg

disjunctive rule

applies OR operator

• ex. Archie loves either betty OR veronica

conditional rule

applies IF, THEN operaor

• ex. IF a man is a bachelor, THEN he is unmarried

biconditional rule

applies conditional rule in both directions; IFF (IF AND ONLY IF or XNOR)

• an item is a member of the categroy if it has both attributes, or neither attribute

• ex. JD has the flue IF AND ONLY IF Turk has it

conditional reasoning

states relation between conditions: antecedent and a consequence (if p then q)

• may be affirmed (true) or dnied (false): is the conclusion true, false, or intermediate

  • ex. if the oilers win the fame, then i will cheer)

propositional calculus

system for categorizing coditional reasoning statements

1. affirm the antecedent → produce valid cnclusion

2. affirm the consequent → produces invlaid conclusion

3. deny the antecedent → produces invalid conclusion

4. denying the consequent → produce valid conclusion

normative model

how a decision should be made, given unlimited resources (ex. memory, time, information) to devote to the decision

• homo economicus (economic human) → concept in ineoclassical eocnomics views humans as rational decision makers

descriptive model

how people really reach decisions, given limited memory abilities, time, information, etc,

• behavioural economics includes social, emotional, and cogntivie factors

expected value

objective, statistical value of outcome

• doe snot always accurately predict behaviour

expected utility

subjective value of an outcome

• better at predicting/ explaining behvaiour (gambling is fun, insurance protects u against high potential loss)

subjective exepcted utility

subjective value of an outcome according to subjective assessment of porbaility

• what people do is nto always sattistically the best decision

prospect theory

describes how potential gains and losses are evaluated, using heuristics and biases

• cognitive features: evaluation made with resepct to reference point, pinicple of diminishing sensitivity, loss aversion

framing effect

judgements can be affected by the way information is presented

• if framed in terms of gains, people are risk-averse; if fframed in terms of losses, people are risk seeking

representative heuristic

jusdhing likelihood by how well something matches the prototype

• small- sample fallacy

small-smaple fallacy

assumig that small samples will be representative of population; this violates the law of large numbers

base rate fallacy

reasoning based on distinctive features, not pobability in the population

conjunction fallacy

(incorrectly) believing that the probability of a conucntion is less than that for a single condition

gamblers fallacy

reasoning based on expectation, not probability

availability heuristic

judgin probability by how easily example are retrieed from memory

• causes: familiarity, recency, simulation heuristic (ability to imagine an event)

anchoring and adjustent ehuristic

initial apporximationn (anchor) may affect later judgements (adjustments)

overconfidence

overestimating the accuracy of ones knowledge and judgements

causes of overconfidence

• people unaware their knowledge is based on unrelaible information

• memory effect → difficulty in recalling info

• includes confirmation bias

hindsight buas

tendency to consistently exaggerate what could have been anticipated in foresight, when looking back in hindsight

causes of hindisght bias

• memory distortion

• beliefs abt events objective likelihoods (inevitability)

  • subjective beliefs abt ones own prediction abilities (forseeability)

illusory correlation

judging a correlation where none exists (or vice versa)

confirmation bias

seeking evidence confirming a velief, even to the exclusion of contradictory informationcr

criticisms of prospect theory

• runs counter to traditional economic view of people as rational

• relies on stated preferences in surveys, not revealed prefernces of behvaiours

• demonstration apporach seems designed to show flaws in decision making, are we really that bad?

• lacks explanation of underlying mechanisms

principels of unconsious htorught

• occurs outside of attnetion

• capcity not limited by WM

• applies bottom up processing

• superior at weghing importance of choice attributes

• usses assocaitive thinking, not rule based thinking

• is divergent, not convergent

criticisms of unconicus thought theory

• some findings not teplicable; meta anlysis found no advantage

• some studies failed to include control (i.e immediate) condition

• giving partisipants as much time as they neede to think consiously led to superior perormance

illicit contrast

if one thing lacks a certain property, any contrasting object must have that propery (or vice versa)

• ex. the provinvial government is crooked. i glad i support the opposition party

argument tby innuendo

direcing one to a partiicular (suggestive) conclusion by choice of words

• ex. is the president a good guy? well hes never been in jail

fallacy of the contunuum

assuming that small differences are always unimportant

• ex. the latte factor: difference between spending $5 latte/day vs. saving ur money = $5200 over 4 years

loaded question

using language that presupposes a cerain conclusion

• ex. when are u going to stop cheating on exams

fallacy of the ocmposition

assuming that what is true of the parts is true of the whole

• ex. u likepotatoes. u like chickedn, u like ice crea,. so u love this potato-chicken- ice cream casseroole

why does greater choice make people miserable

• missed opportunities → options not hcosen have positive qualities

• curse of high expectations

• regret → if final selection is not perfect, dissapointment results

• self-blame→ disappointing results attirbuted to ur poor selection

how do u make decisions

maximizing and satisficing

maximizing

choose the optimal alternative by evaluating pros and cons of every optios

• maximizers = people who want to get the most out of things

• correlated with depression

satisficing

satisfy and suffice

• choose the alternative sufficiently good to satisfy you

lessons on choice (schwartz)

• choose when to choose

• learn to accept ‘good enough’

• dont worry abt what ur missing

• control expectations (low expectaions = less dissapointment)

intelligence

as a measuarble capacity must at te star be defined as the capacity to do well in an intelligence test

• what the tests test

• inferred trait→ represents abilities to learn form experiencee, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, and adapt to changes

Francis galton

tests mostly perceptual → measured size of head and how u culd perceive different frequencies

• concluded success was due to heredity

• started eugenics movement → improve humanitys physical and mental composition by slective parenthood

alfred binet and theodore simon

• developed a test to identify slow learners

• found they performed at the level of younger children

• compared metnal age with actual age

• components: vocabulary, comprehension, nnd verbal relations

assumptions of alfred binet and thoedore simon

• tests show current performance differences

• purpose: identify children who need social help

• believed special training coul help slow learners catch up

• test not based on theoretical conception of ‘intelligence’