U.S. Elections

Poll taxes

Fee requirements for voting, typically used in southern states to prevent Black people from voting; outlawed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Literacy tests

Questions meant to measure citizens' ability to read and understand English but were used to prevent Black people from voting; suspended by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

White primary

Primary elections in the South that allowed only White voters to participate.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation designed to end discriminatory practices disenfranchising Black people, especially in the South.

Closed primary

An election for a party's nominee in which only registered party members can vote.

Semi-closed primary

An election for a party's nominee in which party registrants and unaffiliated voters can vote.

Open primary

An election where registrants can vote in any party’s primary but only in one.

Blanket primary

An election where all candidates for an office are listed on one ballot, and anyone registered may vote; top two candidates advance to a runoff.

Automatic voter registration

A system where state agencies register people to vote unless they opt out.

Same-day registration

A system allowing eligible citizens to register to vote as late as Election Day.

Voter identification laws

Laws requiring registered voters to show government-issued ID before voting.

Early voting

In-person voting that occurs before Election Day.

Absentee voting

Voting by mail for those unable to vote in person on Election Day.

Vote-by-mail

A system where ballots are automatically mailed to voters, who then mail them back.

Convenience voting

Methods like absentee, early, or mail voting that occur before Election Day.

Independent candidates

Individuals running for office without party affiliation.

Term limits

Legal restrictions on the maximum time a person can hold a specific office.

Permanent campaign

The idea that candidates never stop campaigning due to the constant need to raise money.

Single-member districts

Geographic units electing only one representative.

At-large elections

Geographic units electing multiple representatives.

Reapportionment

Determining the number of U.S. House representatives each state gets after the census.

Redistricting

Drawing new legislative and U.S. House district lines after the census.

Malapportionment

Significant differences in the number of citizens across districts.

One person, one vote

The principle that each vote should have equal weight in representation.

Communities of interest

Redistricting principle to keep citizens with shared interests or history together.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to maximize political interests.

Partisan gerrymandering

Redistricting to favor one political party and maximize its seats.

Majority-minority districts

Districts where racial or ethnic minorities form a majority.

Plurality rule

The candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority.

Ranked-choice voting

A system where voters rank candidates; the winner is determined by majority support using rankings.

Proportional representation

Legislative seats allocated based on the percentage of votes each party receives.

Duverger’s Law

The idea that single-member, simple plurality election systems lead to two major political parties.

Strategic voting

Voting for a candidate other than one’s first choice to avoid an undesirable outcome.

Incumbent

The candidate in an election who already occupies the office.

Campaign

An organized effort to persuade and mobilize voters to support or oppose a party or candidate.

Election

The selection of persons to hold public office by means of a vote.

Primary Election

An election in which voters select the candidate that will run for a party in the general election.

Era of Pre-Democratic Campaigns

Time between the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1788 and the widespread expansion of elected public offices in the 1820s.

Federalist Party

Political party from 1796 to 1828, associated with Alexander Hamilton, advocating for stronger federal governing power and commercial regulation.

Democratic-Republican Party

Political party from 1796 to 1824, associated with Thomas Jefferson, favoring limited federal power and state/local authority.

Get-Out-the-Vote (GOTV) Efforts

Efforts by candidates, parties, and interest groups to mobilize citizens to vote.

Democratic Party

Political party from 1828 to the present, associated with Andrew Jackson, representing interests skeptical of entrenched commercial classes.

Whig Party

Political party from 1832 to 1852 opposing Andrew Jackson’s presidency and policies, supporting voters concerned with commercial interests.

Republican Party

Political party from 1860 to the present, originally associated with Abraham Lincoln, opposing slavery and supporting the Union.

Reconstruction

Era following the Civil War, focused on policies to protect Black citizens' rights, enforced in the South with Union troops.

Political Machines

Party organizations mobilizing lower-status citizens to win office, rewarding party workers with services and benefits.

Front-Porch Campaign

Campaign tactic where a candidate remains at home and relies on arranged meetings with the media.

Progressive (or 'Bull Moose') Party

Political party (1912–1914) led by Theodore Roosevelt, advocating for more democratic power and industry regulation.

Civil Service

Government jobs where employment and promotions are based on qualifications and performance.

Australian Ballot

Secret ballot voting method adopted in the early 1900s to ensure voter privacy.

Retail Politics

Face-to-face communication between candidates and voters about political positions.

Wholesale Politics

Mass communication from candidates directed toward voters about political positions.

Survey Research

Method using questionnaires or statistical surveys to gather data on people’s thoughts and behaviors.

Big Data

Large datasets containing detailed information on individual voters, used in American elections.

Analytics

Use of statistical models to identify meaningful patterns within voter data.

Field Experiments

Research where subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups to test campaign outreach.

Treatment Group

The group receiving a message or other intervention in an experiment.

Control Group

The randomly assigned group not receiving the experimental treatment.

Sorting

The phenomenon where partisan preferences become closely aligned with political views.

Tillman Act

1907 law banning corporate contributions to political campaigns.

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Private groups organized to elect political candidates.

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)

1971 law, amended in 1974, setting limits on campaign contributions, mandating disclosure, and providing public funding for presidential elections.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Regulatory agency that enforces laws governing federal elections.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)

2002 law prohibiting soft money spending by parties and limiting outside groups' soft money spending.

Soft Money

Money raised outside the limits established by campaign finance laws.

Hard Money

Money raised in accordance with campaign finance laws.

Express Advocacy

Specifically advocating for the election or defeat of a candidate.

Magic Words

Words that make an advertisement subject to campaign finance laws.

Issue Advocacy

Advocating a position on a political issue without explicitly supporting or opposing a candidate.

Independent Expenditure Committees

PACs raising unlimited donations to advocate for or against candidates.

Super PACs

PACs able to collect unlimited donations but must disclose donors, following Citizens United v. FEC.

527 Organizations

Political organizations that disclose contributors to the IRS; emerged after the BCRA’s soft money ban.

501(c) Organizations

Tax-exempt organizations that may engage in political activity within certain restrictions.

Buckley v. Valeo

1976 Supreme Court decision overturning FECA's spending limits for federal candidates, citing First Amendment rights.

Public Funding

Campaign funds provided by the government.

Clean Elections System

Campaign finance system where candidates raising a minimum amount qualify for public funding.

Citizens United v. FEC

2010 Supreme Court decision holding that corporate funding of independent political broadcasts cannot be limited.

Campaign Strategy

A campaign’s understanding of how its candidate will win the election, who will vote for the candidate, and why.

Vote Targets

Estimates of how many votes a candidate needs to win, based on voter turnout, required percentages, committed votes, and persuadable votes.

Persuadable (Swing) Votes

Voters not committed to a particular candidate, estimated by the vote percentage difference between major party candidates in recent elections.

Probability Sample

A random selection of individuals from a population where each individual has a known probability of being selected, used to gather data through questions.

Focus Group

A form of qualitative research where a small group discusses their perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes, often used to gather data or test campaign positions.

Microtargeting

Targeting tailored advertisements and messages to individuals based on detailed demographic, attitudinal, or consumer information.

Voter Identification (Voter ID) Calls

Telephone calls to voters on a list to inquire about their preferences on candidates and issues in an upcoming election.

Open Seat

An election where no incumbent is running.

Message

Information repeated by a candidate or their surrogates to communicate who they are and why voters should support them.

Framing

The language and context used to define issues in a campaign, influencing public perceptions of what is at stake.

Issue Ownership

The concept that political parties have differing credibility on specific issues, which candidates highlight to gain voter trust.

Median Voter Theorem

In a majority election with two candidates, a candidate maximizes votes by adopting the policy position preferred by the median voter.

Negative Campaigning

Campaign messages criticizing an opponent.

Positive Campaigning

Campaign messages promoting a candidate's background, experience, record, or positions.

Contrast Advertisements

Ads favorably comparing one candidate's record and positions to their opponent's.

Attack Ads

Ads questioning the character, ethics, or integrity of an opponent.

Political Party

A group of people with the shared interest of electing public officials under a common label.

Party-in-the-Electorate

The group of citizens who identify with a political party or regularly support its candidates.

Party-as-Organization

The institutions, professionals, and activists that manage party affairs, including fundraising and rule-making bodies.

Party-in-Government

The members of a political party who hold public office.

Coordinated Expenditures

Money spent by political parties to help cover a candidate’s campaign costs in a federal election, subject to legal limits.

Party Identification

A citizen’s allegiance to a political party, reflecting both party preference and level of commitment.

Negative Partisanship

Political views or candidate preferences formed based on hostility toward the opposing party.