Psych Exam 2

applied behavioral analysis

the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

classical conditioning

learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

operant conditioning

a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s reoccurance

extinction in classical conditioning

the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent

extinction in operant conditioning

decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced

discrimination

an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group

discrimination in operant conditioning

responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced

discrimination in classical conditioning

the process of learning to respond to a certain stimuli and not others

generalization in classical conditioning

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

generalization in operant conditioning

performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation

habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

latent learning

unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

learned helplessness

an organism’s learning through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes

observational learning

learning that involves observing and imitating another’s behavior

schedules of reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning

shaping

rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior

anterograde amnesia

a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events

episodic memory

the retention of information about the where, when and what of life’s happenings (how individuals remember life’s episodes")

encoding

the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage

explicit memory

the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events, and at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated

implicit memory

memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

flashbulb memory

the memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery that everyday events

interference theory

the theory that people forget, not because memories are lost from storage, but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember

priming

the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster

procedural memory

memory for skills

schema

a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information

semantic memory

a person’s knowledge about the world, including their areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as things learned in school and everyday knowledge

sensory memory

memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses

serial position effect

the tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle

working memory

a combination of components, including short-term memory and attention, that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision making, and problem solving

assimilation

an individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge

accommodation

an individual’s adjustment of schemas to include new information

authoritarian parenting

a restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent’s directions

authoritative parenting

a parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but still places limits and controls on behavior

neglectful parenting

a parenting style characterized by lack of parental involvement in a child’s life

permissive parenting

a parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behavior

sensorimotor stage

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years old, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions

pre-operational stage

Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, from about 2-7 years old, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought

concrete operational stage

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, ages 7-11, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations

formal operational stage

Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development, begins at ages 11-15 and continues into adulthood; features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future

temperament

an individual’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding

executive function

higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

secure attachment

the way that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment

insecure attachment

infants do not use their caregiver as a secure base from which to explore; instead, they experience their relationship with their caregiver as unstable and unreliable. 2 types: avoidant and anxious

object permanence

Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they can not directly be seen, heard, or touched

attribution theory

the view that people are motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior

bystander effect

the tendency of an individual who observes an emergency to help less when other people are present than when the observer is alone

cognitive dissonance

an individual’s psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by having two inconsistent thoughts

conformity

a change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard

deindividuation

the reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility when one is part of a group

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

fundamental attribution error

observers’ overestimation of the importance of internal traits and underestimation of the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor’s behavior

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that the more individuals encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that they will start liking the person or thing even if they do not realize they have seen it before

representativeness heuristic

the tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

self-fulfilling prophecy

social expectations that cause an individual to act in such a way that expectations are realized

social contagion

imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions, and ideas

social identity theory

Tajfel’s theory that social identity, based on group memberships, is a crucial part of self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about oneself

stereotype threat

an individual’s fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about their group

gender identity

a person’s deeply held personal sense of being a boy/man, girl/woman, both, neither, or fluid

gender roles

roles that reflect the expectations for how people should think, act, and feel, depending on the gender they are perceived to be

social role theory

Eagly’s theory of gender development which, while acknowledging the physical differences between men and women, argues that these differences color social expectations and create social structures that limit opportunities for both genders

sex chromosomes

in humans, the pair of genes (XX or XY) that can classify a person as a male or female

sexual orientation

the direction of an individual’s erotic interests

gender similarities hypothesis

Hyde’s proposition that men and women (boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different

big five factors of personality

the five broad traits that are thought to describe the main dimensions of personality: neuroticism (emotional instability), extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

projective test

a personality assessment test that presents individuals with an ambiguous stimulus and asks them to describe it or tell a story about it - to project their own meaning onto the stimulus

self-efficacy

the belief that one can accomplish a given goal or task and produce positive change

unconditional positive regard

Roger’s construct referring to the individual’s need to be accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of the person’s behavior

self-report test

a method of measuring personality characteristics that directly asks people whether specific items describe their personality traits; also called an objective test or an inventory

face validity

the extent to which a test item appears to fit the particular trait it is measuring

minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

the most widely used and researched empirically keyed self-report personality test

empirically keyed test

a type of self-report test that presents many questionnaire items to two groups that are known to be different in some central way

hawthorne effect

the tendency of individuals to perform better simply because of being singled out and made to feel important

flow

the optimal experience of a match between one’s skills and the challenge of a task

continuance commitment

a kind of job commitment deriving from the employee’s perception that leaving the organization would be too costly, both economically and socially

halo effect

a bias, common in performance appraisals, that occurs when a rater gives an employee the same rating on all of the items being evaluated, even though the individual varies across the dimensions being assessed

performance appraisal

the evaluation of a person’s success at meeting an organization’s goals

strengths based management

a management style emphasizing that maximizing an employee’s existing strengths is much easier than trying to build such attributes from the ground up

transactional leader

an individual in a leadership capacity who emphasizes the exchange relationship between the worker and the leader and who applies the principle that a good job should be rewarded

DSM-5-TR

the text revision of the fifth edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders; the major classification of psychological disorders in the United States

medical model

the view that psychological disorders are medical diseases with a biological origin

comorbidity

when two or more disorders are experienced at the same time

hallucinations

sensory experiences that occur in the absence of real stimuli

delusions

false, unusual, and sometimes magical beliefs that are not part of an individual’s culture

major depressive disorder

psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least 2 weeks

OCD

psychological disorder in which the individual has anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce some future situation

PTSD

psychological disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event, a severely oppressive situation, physical or emotional abuse, or a natural/unnatural disaster

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by persistent anxiety for at least 6 months, and in which the individual is unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety

borderline personality disorder

psychological disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions and by marked impulsivity beginning in early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts

ADHD

a common psychological disorder in which the individual exhibits one or more of the following: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

autism spectrum disorder

a neurodevelopmental disorder involving persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across a variety of settings as well as restrictive repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities

vulnerability-stress hypothesis or diathesis-stress model

theory suggesting that preexisting conditions - such as genetic characteristics, personality dispositions, or experiences - may put a person at risk of developing a psychological disorder