IB History Topic 10 - Authoritarian States: Hitler

Conditions of Hitler's emergence: economic factors

1. The Legacy of the First World War and Versailles

• Reparations: The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed a reparations bill of £6.6 billion ($33 billion) on Germany. This created a long-term structural deficit and psychological resentment.

• Industrial Loss: Germany lost key industrial territories like the Saar (coal) and Upper Silesia, which hampered economic recovery. Post-war industry operated at only 47% of pre-war performance.

• War Debt: Germany had funded the war through loans rather than taxes, expecting to pay them back with spoils of victory. Defeat left the state with massive internal debt.

2. The Hyperinflation Crisis (1923)

• The Ruhr Occupation: When Germany defaulted on reparations, France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr (Germany's industrial heartland). The Weimar government called for "passive resistance," paying workers to strike.

• Printing Money: To pay the striking workers, the government printed excess paper marks. This led to hyperinflation, where the currency became worthless.

• Social Impact: Middle-class savings were wiped out, leading to a loss of faith in the democratic system. While the economy stabilized during the "Golden Years" (1924–1929) under the Dawes Plan, the psychological damage remained.

3. The Great Depression and the Wall Street Crash (1929)

• Dependency on US Loans: The German recovery was built on "borrowed prosperity." Following the 1929 Wall Street Crash, the United States recalled the short-term loans provided under the Dawes and Young Plans.

• Banking Collapse: By 1932, major German banks had closed. Investment dried up, and businesses collapsed.

• Unemployment: Unemployment skyrocketed from roughly 1.3 million in 1929 to 6 million by 1932. One in every three German workers was jobless.

Conditions of Hitler's emergence: social division

Social divisions in the Weimar Republic were deep, historical, and exacerbated by the trauma of national defeat. These fractures prevented a unified defense of democracy and allowed Hitler to present the Nazi Party as the only force capable of "national synthesis."

1. Ideological Polarization: Left vs. Right

• The "Red Scare": The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) terrified the German middle class, peasantry, and aristocracy. The rise of the Spartacists (early Communists) led to violent uprisings, such as the Spartacist Revolt (1919).

• Paramilitary Culture: Political divisions became physical. Most parties had their own paramilitary wings (e.g., the Communist RFB vs. the Nazi SA). Society was essentially in a state of low-level civil war, making the public desperate for "order."

• The "Stab in the Back" Myth (Dolchstoßlegende): Right-wing elements blamed the social collapse and war defeat on "internal enemies"—Socialists, Communists, and Jews—claiming they had betrayed the army. This created a profound social rift between those who supported the new Republic and those who viewed it as a product of treason.

2. Class and Socio-Economic Conflict

• The Elite vs. The Masses: The traditional German aristocracy (Junkers) and the industrial elite never fully accepted the Weimar Republic. They viewed the democratic system as a threat to their status and property, leading them to support authoritarian "solutions" to suppress the working class.

• The Disenchanted Middle Class (Mittelstand): The hyperinflation of 1923 wiped out the savings of teachers, civil servants, and small shopkeepers. This group felt "squeezed" between the rising power of organized labor (unions) and the massive wealth of industrial capitalists, making them highly susceptible to Nazi rhetoric.

3. Rural vs. Urban Divide

• Cultural Resentment: There was a sharp division between the liberal, "decadent" culture of urban centers like Berlin (known for avant-garde art, jazz, and progressive social values) and the conservative, traditionalist values of rural Germany.

• Agricultural Distress: Farmers felt ignored by the urban-centric Weimar government. The Nazis exploited this by promoting the "Blood and Soil" (Blut und Boden) ideology, which glorified the rural peasant as the true heart of the German race.

4. Religious and Ethnic Divisions

• Catholic vs. Protestant: Germany was socially split along religious lines. The Catholic Zentrum (Center) Party held a firm block of voters, making it difficult for secular or Protestant-led parties to achieve a majority. Hitler eventually targeted Protestant nationalists who felt their traditional Prussian-Protestant identity was being eroded.

• Anti-Semitism: Existing social prejudices against the Jewish minority were weaponized. Jews were falsely characterized as both the architects of "International Finance" and the leaders of "Bolshevik Communism," serving as a convenient scapegoat for all social divisions.

5. The Collapse of the "Volksgemeinschaft" (National Community)

• Social Fragmentation: The Weimar period was characterized by a lack of social consensus. Every group—unions, veterans, churches, and industrialists—acted only in their own narrow interest.

• Hitler’s Appeal: Hitler promised to transcend these divisions by creating a "Volksgemeinschaft"—a unified national community based on race rather than class or religion. This promise of "social harmony" through the exclusion of "outsiders" was a powerful tool for his emergence.

Conditions of Hitler's emergence: impact of war

The transition from the German Empire to the Weimar Republic was born out of military defeat. The psychological and institutional trauma of World War I created a "warrior culture" that rejected civilian democracy and sought a return to national strength.

1. The Trauma of Defeat and the "Stab in the Back"

• The Sudden Collapse: In early 1918, German propaganda suggested victory was near. The sudden surrender in November 1918 shocked the public, leading to widespread humiliation and a refusal to accept that the army had been defeated on the battlefield.

• The Dolchstoßlegende (Stab in the Back Myth): Right-wing nationalists and military leaders (like Ludendorff) claimed the "undefeated" army had been betrayed at home by "November Criminals"—Socialists, Jews, and democratic politicians who organized strikes and the 1918 Revolution.

• Hitler's Role: Hitler utilized this resentment, portraying himself as the "front-line soldier" who would avenge this betrayal.

2. The Treaty of Versailles (The "Diktat")

The treaty was viewed not as a peace settlement, but as a "dictated" humiliation.

• Article 231 (War Guilt Clause): Germany was forced to accept total responsibility for causing the war. This was a massive blow to national pride and provided a constant theme for Nazi rallies.

• Territorial Losses: Germany ceded 13% of its territory, including the "Polish Corridor" (separating East Prussia) and Alsace-Lorraine. This fueled "irredentism"—the desire to reclaim lost German lands.

• Disarmament: The military was reduced from a massive wartime force of 4.5 million to a mere 100,000 volunteers. The navy was restricted, and the air force was banned.

3. The "Front Generation" and Paramilitarism

• Brutalization of Society: Millions of soldiers returned from the trenches unable to reintegrate into civilian life. They were "brutalized" by years of industrial warfare, viewing violence as a legitimate political tool.

• The Freikorps: These were private paramilitary units made up of ex-soldiers who fought against communist uprisings and guarded borders. They were the ideological ancestors of the Nazi SA (Sturmabteilung).

• Cult of the Soldier: War made military values (discipline, hierarchy, strength) more popular than democratic values (debate, compromise, individual rights).

4. Continuity of the Conservative Elite

• The "Republic without Republicans": Although the Kaiser was gone, the "Deep State" remained. The judiciary, the civil service, and the military officer corps remained staffed by the conservative elite who had led the war effort.

• Support for Authoritarianism: These elites loathed the Weimar Republic. They tolerated Hitler because they saw him as a tool to dismantle the "weak" democracy, rebuild the army, and restore the military glory of the pre-war era.

5. Political Violence as a Legacy of War

• Coups and Assassinations: The immediate post-war years (1919–1923) saw constant attempts to overthrow the government by force (e.g., the Kapp Putsch and Hitler’s own Beer Hall Putsch).

• The Logic of War: The war taught a generation that "might makes right." Hitler’s emergence was direct evidence of this; his movement was structured like an army, used military uniforms, and viewed politics as a battle for national survival

Conditions of Hitler's emergence: weakness of the political system

Conditions of Hitler’s Emergence: Weakness of the Political System

The Weimar Constitution was designed to be the most democratic in the world, yet it contained structural flaws that allowed an authoritarian leader to dismantle the Republic from within using "legal" means.

1. Structural Flaws: Proportional Representation (PR)

• Fragmentation: PR meant that political parties gained seats in the Reichstag in exact proportion to the percentage of votes they received. This allowed small, extremist parties (like the early NSDAP) to gain a foothold.

• Coalition Deadlock: No single party ever won a majority. Governments were forced into unstable coalitions. Between 1924 and 1929 alone, there were six different coalition governments.

• Policy Paralysis: Frequent disagreements between coalition partners (e.g., over unemployment benefits during the Depression) led to the frequent collapse of cabinets and a public perception that democracy was "talk" without "action."

2. Structural Flaws: Article 48 (The Suicide Clause)

• Emergency Decrees: The Constitution allowed the President to rule by decree in an "emergency" without the consent of the Reichstag.

• The Norm of Dictatorship: Between 1930 and 1933, the Reichstag effectively ceased to function as a legislative body. Chancellors like Brüning and von Papen relied almost entirely on President Hindenburg’s use of Article 48 to pass laws. This accustomed the German public to authoritarian rule before Hitler even took office.

3. Lack of Popular Support: The "November Criminals"

• The Legitimacy Gap: The Republic was born out of revolution and defeat. It was permanently associated with the "shame" of the Treaty of Versailles.

• Anti-Democratic Elites: The "State Apparatus"—judges, civil servants, and the military—remained loyal to the old authoritarian traditions of the Kaiser. They often gave light sentences to right-wing rebels (like Hitler after the 1923 Putsch) while harshly punishing left-wingers.

4. Political Instability and Extralegal Violence

• Early Threats: The Republic was rocked by early violent attempts to seize power, including the Spartacist Uprising (Left) and the Kapp Putsch (Right).

• The Rise of Extremism: As the economy collapsed in 1930, voters abandoned moderate parties. By July 1932, the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag with 230 seats. The political center had vanished, leaving the government unable to form any majority without the Nazis or Communists.

5. The "Backroom Deal" and Appointment (1932–1933)

• Political Intrigue: Hitler did not seize power in a coup; he was invited in. Conservative politicians like Franz von Papen convinced President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933.

• The Miscalculation: The elite believed they could "tame" Hitler. Von Papen famously remarked, "In two months' time, we will have squeezed Hitler into a corner until he squeaks."

6. The Final Dismantling: The Reichstag Fire

• The Catalyst: In February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Hitler used this "emergency" to convince Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree.

• Legal Purge: This decree used Article 48 to suspend all civil liberties. Hitler was able to legally arrest communist deputies and political foes, effectively removing the opposition before the final March 1933 elections.

• Consolidation: With his opponents in prison or intimidated, Hitler passed the Enabling Act, which legally transferred all legislative power from the Reichstag to himself, ending the Weimar political system entirely.

Methods of Hitler's emergence: persuasion and coercion

Hitler used a "dual-track" strategy: legal/persuasive methods to win public support and coercive/violent methods to dismantle opposition.

1. Persuasion: Oratory and Targeted Propaganda

• The "Führer Myth": Hitler was portrayed as a superhuman leader who was chosen by fate to save Germany. His speeches were carefully staged events with choreographed lighting, banners, and music to create an emotional connection with the audience.

• Tailored Messaging: He was a pragmatic orator. To industrialists, he promised the crushing of trade unions and protection from Communism. To workers, he promised "Work and Bread." To nationalists, he promised the tearing up of the Treaty of Versailles.

• The Trial as a Platform: After the failed Beer Hall Putsch (1923), Hitler used his trial for treason to deliver long, nationalistic speeches. The sympathetic judges allowed him to turn a legal defeat into a propaganda victory, making him a household name across Germany.

2. Persuasion: The Use of Technology and Modernity

• "Hitler Over Germany": During the 1932 elections, Hitler was the first politician to use an airplane to visit up to five cities in a single day. This portrayed him as a dynamic, modern leader in contrast to the aging President Hindenburg.

• Simple Slogans: Under Joseph Goebbels, propaganda was simplified into repetitive slogans and posters that focused on "One People, One Reich, One Leader."

3. Coercion: Paramilitary Violence (The SA)

• The "Brownshirts" (SA): Led by Ernst Röhm, the SA provided the physical force of the movement. They disrupted the meetings of political opponents (especially Communists and Socialists) and protected Nazi rallies.

• Creating Chaos to Promise Order: The SA intentionally engaged in street brawls. Hitler then used this violence in his speeches to argue that the Weimar Republic was in "chaos" and that only he could restore "law and order."

• Election Intimidation: During the 1930 and 1932 elections, the SA stood outside polling stations and marched through working-class neighborhoods to intimidate voters.

4. Coercion: Legal Terror and Article 48

• The Reichstag Fire Decree: After the fire in February 1933, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to use Article 48 to pass the "Decree for the Protection of People and State."

• Mass Arrests: This was used to "legally" arrest 4,000 political opponents, including Communist deputies in the Reichstag. By removing them, Hitler cleared the way for the 2/3 majority needed for the Enabling Act.

5. Coercion: The Night of the Long Knives (June 1934)

• The Purge: Although Hitler was already Chancellor, his power was not absolute until he dealt with the radical wing of his own party (the SA) and the conservative elite.

• The Targets: He ordered the SS to assassinate Ernst Röhm (SA leader), Gregor Strasser (Nazi rival), and former Chancellor von Schleicher.

• The Results:

  1. Military Loyalty: The Army was terrified of the SA’s desire to take them over; by destroying the SA leadership, Hitler gained the personal oath of loyalty from every soldier in the Army.

  2. Public Support: Surprisingly, many Germans welcomed the move. The "thuggish" behavior of the SA had become a liability; by killing them, Hitler looked like a leader who favored "stability" over "radicalism."

  3. Total Control: It proved that Hitler was the "Supreme Judge" of the German people, operating above the law.

Methods of Hitler's emergence: role of leader

While the economic and social conditions created the "opportunity," the specific leadership style and organizational structure Hitler imposed on the NSDAP were the "engine" of his rise.

1. The "Führerprinzip" (The Leadership Principle)

• Absolute Authority: Hitler transformed the Nazi Party from a committee-run group into a vertical hierarchy based on the Führerprinzip. This meant that the leader’s word was above all written law, and every member owed absolute obedience to their superior.

• Cult of Personality: From the early 1920s, Hitler was marketed not just as a politician, but as a "Messiah" figure. This "Führer Myth" suggested that he alone possessed the will and vision to restore Germany’s greatness.

2. Ideological Vision: The 25-Point Programme

• The Blueprint: Written by Hitler and Anton Drexler in 1920, this document gave the party a clear, albeit broad, set of goals.

• Key Demands: It combined nationalism (uniting all Germans, scrapping Versailles), anti-Semitism (stripping Jews of citizenship), and socialism (profit-sharing and old-age pensions).

• Flexibility: Hitler used the programme to appeal to both the working class and the nationalist middle class, but he famously ignored the "socialist" points later when he needed the support of wealthy industrialists.

3. The "Inner Circle": Distribution of Specialist Roles

Hitler’s role was also that of a "talent manager," surrounding himself with individuals who provided the infrastructure for his rise:

• Joseph Goebbels (The Propagandist): Orchestrated the mass rallies and simplified the Nazi message into powerful visuals. He was responsible for the "Hitler Over Germany" campaign.

• Hermann Göring (The Diplomat): A WWI flying ace with high-level social connections. He acted as the bridge between Hitler and the traditional conservative elites/industrialists.

• Heinrich Himmler (The Enforcer): Transformed the SS (Schutzstaffel) from Hitler’s personal bodyguard into an elite, racially "pure" organization that eventually replaced the SA in importance.

• Ernst Röhm (The Muscle): As leader of the SA, he turned a ragtag group of brawlers into a paramilitary force of millions, providing the "coercion" necessary to dominate the streets.

4. Oratory as a Political Weapon

• Beer Hall Roots: Hitler practiced his oratory in Munich beer halls (like the Hofbräuhaus). He learned how to gauge an audience's mood, starting slowly and building to a crescendo of "controlled rage."

• Emotional Logic: Unlike traditional politicians who used complex arguments, Hitler focused on emotion. He used simple dichotomies: Friend vs. Enemy, Aryan vs. Jew, Strength vs. Weakness.

5. Strategic Opportunism: The Pivot to Legality

• Post-1923 Realization: After the failed Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler realized that "seizing" power by force was impossible as long as the Army stayed loyal to the state.

• The "Legal Path": He shifted the party’s strategy to winning power through the ballot box. This "legality strategy" was a brilliant leadership move that allowed the Nazis to remain a legal party while their paramilitary wing continued to use violence on the streets.

Methods of Hitler's emergence: ideology

deology was the "hook" Hitler used to convert economic misery into political action. While early Nazi ideology was a chaotic mix of ideas, Hitler refined it into a cohesive narrative of national victimhood and racial destiny.

1. Mein Kampf (My Struggle)

• The Manifesto: Written during his 1924 imprisonment in Landsberg, this text provided the ideological framework for the NSDAP. It was not a detailed policy document but a "worldview" (Weltanschauung).

• Social Darwinism: Hitler applied "survival of the fittest" to human races. He argued that history was a constant struggle between a "master race" (Aryans) and "parasitic" races (primarily Jews).

2. National Expansion: Lebensraum and Pan-Germanism

• Living Space (Lebensraum): Hitler argued that the German (Aryan) race was naturally superior and required more land to thrive. This land was to be found in the East (Russia/Poland), displacing "inferior" Slavic peoples.

• Pan-Germanism: The goal was to unite all German-speaking people (Heim ins Reich) into one Great German Empire (Großdeutschland). This directly challenged the borders established by the Treaty of Versailles.

3. Economic Ideology: Autarky and "National Socialism"

• Autarky (Self-Sufficiency): The Great Depression proved that reliance on international trade and American loans (Dawes Plan) made Germany vulnerable. Hitler promoted Autarky—the idea that Germany must produce its own food and raw materials to be independent of the global (specifically "Jewish-controlled") financial system.

• Anti-Marxism: Despite the "Socialist" in the party name, Nazi ideology was violently anti-Communist. Hitler argued that Class Struggle (Marxism) was a Jewish conspiracy to divide and weaken the German nation.

4. The Racial Hierarchy and Anti-Semitism

• The "November Criminals": Ideology was used to explain Germany's defeat in WWI. Hitler claimed that Jews and Marxists had "stabbed the army in the back," linking racial ideology to nationalistic resentment.

• Redemption: The Aryan race was portrayed as the creator of all human culture and science, while other races were seen as "culture-destroyers." This provided a sense of pride and superiority to a population humiliated by war and poverty.

5. Anti-Versailles and the "Diktat"

• The "Peace of Shame": A core pillar of Nazi ideology was the total rejection of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler promised to restore German military honor, stop reparations, and reclaim lost territories. This was the most popular part of his platform among the general public and the conservative elite.

Methods of Hitler's emergence: force

1. Early Paramilitarism: The SA (1920–1923)

• The Formation: The Sturmabteilung (SA) was formed in 1920, primarily from ex-soldiers and Freikorps members.

• The Function: Initially, force was used for "hall protection" (beating up hecklers at Nazi meetings) and to physically disrupt the meetings of the KPD (Communists) and SPD (Socialists).

• Atmosphere of Violence: The SA’s presence on the streets served to demonstrate that the Weimar government was unable to maintain order, a "chaos" that Hitler promised to fix.

2. The Beer Hall Putsch (1923): The Violent Turning Point

• The Event: (Note: Munich Putsch and Beer Hall Putsch are the same event). Hitler attempted to seize the Bavarian government by force, hoping to march on Berlin.

• The Failure: The police and army remained loyal to the state and crushed the coup, resulting in 16 Nazi deaths and Hitler’s arrest.

• The Lesson (Tactical Shift): This is the single most important "force" point. Hitler realized that armed revolution against the State was impossible. He shifted to the Legalitätsstrategie (Legality Strategy)—using the democratic system to destroy democracy.

3. Force as an Electoral Tool (1930–1933)

• Intimidation: During the "Golden Years" (1924-1929), the SA was marginalized. However, during the Depression, they were revitalized. By 1932, the SA had 400,000 members.

• Psychological Pressure: Force was used to disrupt opposition rallies, destroy printing presses, and intimidate voters at polling stations.

• The "Order" Narrative: By creating street violence and then offering the SA as a "national police force" to stop it, Hitler used force to make himself look like the only man who could provide stability.

4. The "Backroom Deal" vs. Force

• The Compromise: You are correct—Hitler did not "seize" power in 1933. He was appointed Chancellor by President Hindenburg following a series of negotiations led by Franz von Papen.

• Force as the "Lever": While the appointment was a deal, the reason the elites (von Papen and Hindenburg) made the deal was the threat of the SA. They feared that if they didn't bring Hitler into the government, the SA would start a full-scale civil war.

5. Post-Appointment Force: The "Legal Terror" (1933–1934)

• The Reichstag Fire (Feb 1933): Once in power, Hitler used the "threat" of Communist violence to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree.

• Concentration Camps: The first camp, Dachau, was opened in March 1933 to house political prisoners (Communists and Socialists) who were arrested by the SA and SS.

• The Enabling Act (March 1933): Force was used inside the building. SA men lined the corridors and surrounded the Kroll Opera House (where the Reichstag met), chanting "We want the bill—or fire and murder!" to intimidate deputies into voting for the Act.

Methods of Hitler's emergence: propaganda

1. The Cult of Personality (The Führer Myth)

• The "Saviour" Image: Hitler was portrayed as a man of the people—a simple front-line soldier who understood the suffering of the masses. Propaganda emphasized his strength, decisiveness, and perceived "destiny" to save Germany from the "November Criminals" and the "Red Threat."

• Oratory as Spectacle: Hitler’s speeches were the centerpiece of Nazi propaganda. They were carefully choreographed events, often held at night with dramatic lighting (the "Cathedral of Light") to create a quasi-religious atmosphere.

• The Führer Principle (Führerprinzip): Propaganda promoted the idea that Germany needed a single, absolute leader rather than a "weak" parliamentary system.

2. Modern Technology and "Hitler Over Germany"

• The Plane Campaign: In the 1932 elections, the Nazis launched the "Hitler Over Germany" campaign. Hitler was the first politician to use a private plane to visit up to five cities in a single day. This created an image of a dynamic, modern, and omnipresent leader.

• Radio and Film: The Nazis were early adopters of mass media. They used radio broadcasts to bring Hitler’s voice into homes and commissioned films and documentaries to portray the party as a disciplined, unstoppable force.

• Leaflets and Press: Goebbels coordinated a massive publishing machine. The Nazi newspaper, Völkischer Beobachter, provided a constant stream of indoctrination, while millions of leaflets were tailored to specific social groups (e.g., promising "Work and Bread" to laborers or "Protection of Property" to the middle class).

3. Simple Messaging and Scapegoating

• Emotional Appeals: Nazi propaganda avoided complex political programs. Instead, it focused on simple slogans and emotional triggers: national pride, racial purity, and anti-communism.

• The Common Enemy: To unify a divided society, propaganda identified clear "villains":

  • Jews: Portrayed as the source of both economic ruin (international finance) and political chaos (Bolshevism).

  • Communists: Presented as a violent threat to the German family and church.

  • The Treaty of Versailles: Characterized as a "shackle" that only Hitler could break.

4. Indoctrination and the Youth

• Targeting the Next Generation: The Nazis viewed children as the most important long-term target. Propaganda was integrated into the school curriculum.

• Education for War and Motherhood:

  • Boys: Education focused on physical fitness and military history to prepare them for life as soldiers.

  • Girls: Education emphasized domestic science and the "3 Ks" (Kinder, Küche, Kirche—Children, Kitchen, Church) to prepare them for their role as "bearers of the race."

• Teachers as Propagandists: Teachers were forced to join the National Socialist Teachers League (NSLB). Those who refused were purged, ensuring that every classroom became a site of indoctrination.

5. Visual Identity and Ritual

• Branding: The Swastika, the Roman-style salutes, and the brown shirts (SA) provided a powerful visual identity. It suggested order and strength in a time of political chaos.

• Mass Rallies: Events like the Nuremberg Rallies served as massive propaganda exercises, demonstrating the discipline of the party and the unity of the "National Community" (Volksgemeinschaft).

Consolidation and Maintenance of power: Use of legal methods

1. The Reichstag Fire Decree (February 1933)

• The Event: On February 27, 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. A Dutch Communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was arrested at the scene.

• The Legal Action: Hitler convinced President Hindenburg to sign the Decree for the Protection of People and State (Reichstag Fire Decree) using Article 48.

• Impact: This decree suspended all basic civil liberties, including freedom of speech, press, and assembly. It allowed the Nazis to legally arrest thousands of political opponents, primarily Communists (KPD), and shut down their newspapers before the upcoming election.

2. The March 5, 1933, Election and Coalition

• The Election: Despite the atmosphere of terror and the banning of the Communist press, the Nazis failed to secure an absolute majority, winning 43.9% of the vote.

• The Coalition: To achieve a majority in the Reichstag, Hitler formed a coalition with the nationalist DNVP.

• Significance: Even with a coalition majority, Hitler still lacked the two-thirds majority required to change the Constitution. This led to the necessity of the Enabling Act.

3. The Enabling Act (March 1933)

• Formal Title: The "Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich."

• The Legal Action: This act allowed the Cabinet (effectively Hitler) to pass laws without the consent of the Reichstag or the President, even if those laws violated the Constitution.

• The Tactic: To ensure the two-thirds majority, Hitler banned the 81 Communist deputies from attending and stationed SA and SS men in the corridors to intimidate other voters. The Catholic Center Party voted in favor after Hitler promised to protect the rights of the Church.

• Impact: This legally ended parliamentary democracy and made Hitler a dictator with the power of decree.

4. Nazification of the Landtage (Gleichschaltung)

• The Legal Action: In March and April 1933, Hitler passed the First and Second Laws for the Coordination of the Federal States.

• Impact: These laws dissolved the state parliaments (Landtage) and reconstituted them with Nazi majorities.

• Reich Governors: New positions called Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governors) were created to oversee the states. These men were almost always local Nazi Gauleiters, ensuring that the central government in Berlin had direct legal control over every region of Germany, ending the federal system.

5. Law Against the Formation of New Parties (July 1933)

• The Context: By the summer of 1933, the Communist Party (KPD) and Social Democratic Party (SPD) had been banned, and other parties like the DNVP and the Center Party had been pressured into dissolving themselves.

• The Legal Action: This law declared the Nazi Party (NSDAP) to be the only legal political party in Germany.

• Impact: Any attempt to maintain or form a new political organization became a criminal offense. Germany was legally transformed into a one-party state within six months of Hitler becoming Chancellor.

Consolidation and Maintenance of power: force

Hitler’s use of force was characterized by a transition from the chaotic, "indiscriminate" violence of the SA to the highly organized, "selective" terror of the SS and Gestapo. This created a system where the state targeted specific enemies rather than the general population, relying on a climate of fear and public complicity.

1. The Transition of Force: SA to SS

• The SA (Sturmabteilung): During the rise to power, the SA (Brownshirts) used "arbitrary" violence to disrupt opposition meetings and intimidate voters. Once Hitler became Chancellor, their lack of discipline and the radical socialist leanings of their leader, Ernst Röhm, became a liability to Hitler’s alliance with the army and conservative elites.

• The Night of the Long Knives (June 30, 1934): Hitler used the SS to execute Röhm and at least 85 other high-ranking SA leaders and political rivals (including former Chancellor von Schleicher).

• Impact: This ended "indiscriminate" street violence. The SS (Schutzstaffel) emerged as the primary, disciplined instrument of state terror.

2. The SS (Schutzstaffel) and Himmler

Under Heinrich Himmler, the SS expanded from a small bodyguard unit into a "state within a state."

• Membership Growth: Expanded from a small unit to 220,000 members by 1935.

• Waffen-SS: A highly trained military branch that eventually rivaled the regular army (Wehrmacht).

• The Death’s Head Units (Totenkopfverbände): The specific branch of the SS responsible for the administration and guard duties of the concentration camps from 1934 onwards.

• Wartime Role: During WWII, the SS controlled vast territories and industries. The Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units) were responsible for the mass murder of Jews, Romani people, and Slavs in Eastern Europe, beginning in 1939.

3. The Gestapo and the SD

• The Gestapo (Secret State Police): Formed by Goering in 1933 and later merged into Himmler's empire. Their role was to investigate and suppress "all tendencies dangerous to the state."

• Methods: Used torture to extract information and held suspects in "protective custody" without trial. Many victims simply "disappeared."

• The Role of Denunciations: The Gestapo was surprisingly small; in many cities, there were only a few dozen officers. They relied heavily on ordinary citizens to denounce neighbors and co-workers.

  • Statistic: In Würzburg, 54% of all race-related charges were initiated by private citizens, not the police.

• The SD (Sicherheitsdienst): The intelligence branch of the SS, tasked with monitoring public opinion and rooting out internal political offenders.

4. The Concentration Camp System

• Dachau (March 1933): The first camp, established originally to hold political prisoners (Communists and Socialists).

• Scale of Imprisonment: Between 1933 and 1939, approximately 225,000 Germans were imprisoned for political crimes. The camps rarely held fewer than 10,000 prisoners at any given time during the 1930s.

• Conditions: Discipline was sadistic and "brutal." Prisoners were subjected to hard labor, poor diets, and inadequate living conditions designed to "break" the spirit of opposition.

5. Policing and Judicial Control

• Centralization: All police forces were eventually unified under Himmler's control as Chief of German Police in 1936. This removed any legal distinction between the professional police and the Nazi paramilitary forces.

• The People’s Court: A specialized court established to try cases of "treason." Judges were Nazis, and there was no right of appeal. This provided a "legal" veneer to the use of force against political opponents.

Consolidation and Maintenance of power: Charismatic leadership

1. The "Führer Myth"

• The Personification of the Nation: Hitler was not viewed merely as a politician but as the living embodiment of Germany. Propaganda portrayed him as a man of "destiny" who had sacrificed his personal life (he had no family and lived simply) to serve the state.

• The "Strong Man" Image: In contrast to the perceived "weakness" and "indecision" of Weimar’s coalition leaders, Hitler was presented as driven, proud, and determined. His image was built on the idea of Infallibility—the belief that "The Führer is always right."

• National Savior: He was seen as the only individual capable of providing the "strong rule" necessary to rescue Germany from the twin threats of Bolshevism and international finance.

2. Oratory and Mass Suggestion

• The Power of Speech: Hitler was a "brilliant speaker" who spent years refining his rhetorical style. He used short, repetitive phrases and emotional appeals rather than complex policy debates.

• Psychological Impact: His speeches often began quietly and built into a crescendo of passion. This "mass suggestion" created a religious-like fervor in his audiences, making people feel part of a powerful, unified movement.

• The Ritual of the Rally: His charisma was amplified by massive, choreographed spectacles (like the Nuremberg Rallies). The use of banners, music, and the "Cathedral of Light" made Hitler the focal point of a national religious experience.

3. The "Golden Age" of Achievement

Charisma was not sustained by words alone; it was reinforced by perceived "successes" that made the leadership appear miraculous.

• Economic "Miracle": The rapid reduction in unemployment (from 6 million in 1932 to nearly zero by 1936) was credited entirely to Hitler’s personal vision. While much of this was due to rearmament and public works (like the Autobahn), the public viewed it as a sign of his genius.

• Overturning Versailles: Hitler’s bold foreign policy moves—remilitarizing the Rhineland, the Anschluss with Austria, and reclaiming the Sudetenland—were seen as a "gradual overturning of Versailles." This restored German pride and convinced many that he was a "man of peace" who achieved national goals without a major war.

4. Charisma as a Tool of Governance

• The Führer Principle (Führerprinzip): This principle replaced democratic debate with a strict hierarchy. Everyone was expected to "work towards the Führer," interpreting his "will" rather than following a written set of laws.

• Bypassing the State: Hitler's charisma allowed him to ignore the bureaucracy of the civil service. Because the people felt a personal loyalty to him, he could implement radical policies (like the Nuremberg Laws) that traditional legal structures might have blocked.

• Survival of Crises: Even when local Nazi officials were disliked for corruption or brutality, Hitler remained popular. The common phrase was, "If only the Führer knew!", suggesting that the leader was pure and only his subordinates were to blame.

5. Comparison to the Weimar Era

• Stability vs. Chaos: For many Germans, the Hitler years felt like a "golden age" compared to the instability of the 1920s. His charismatic leadership provided a sense of national purpose that was absent during the parliamentary deadlock of the Weimar Republic.

• The Professional Leader: Unlike the "armchair" politicians of the previous era, Hitler was seen as a "good organiser and politician" who was physically active, frequently flying across the country (the "Hitler Over Germany" campaign) to connect with the people directly.

Consolidation and Maintenance of power: dissemination of propoganda/censorship

The Nazi regime sought to establish a "Total State" by controlling not just the actions, but the thoughts of the German people. This was achieved through the dual strategy of censorship (removing "harmful" ideas) and propaganda (inserting Nazi ideology).

1. The Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda

• Establishment: In March 1933, Joseph Goebbels was appointed head of this new ministry. He aimed to "synchronize" (Gleichschaltung) the cultural and intellectual life of Germany.

• Control of Information: The state established a monopoly on news. The Eher Verlag (Nazi publishing house) grew to control 66% of the press by 1939. The number of daily newspapers plummeted from 4,700 in 1933 to just 1,100 by 1944.

• The Sole News Agency: All journalists were required to be members of the Reich Press Chamber and were issued daily directives on what to print.

2. The "Führer Cult" (The Myth of Hitler)

• The Savior Image: Propaganda focused on the "Cult of the Führer," portraying Hitler as a superhuman leader. The book The Hitler No One Knows sold 420,000 copies between 1932 and 1940.

• National Rituals: New secular holidays were created to instill loyalty, including Hitler’s birthday, celebrations of the Munich Putsch, and the massive Nuremberg Rallies.

• Kershaw’s Argument: Historian Ian Kershaw argues that the "Führer Myth" was so successful that Hitler himself eventually became a victim of it, losing touch with reality and believing in his own infallibility, particularly in foreign policy.

3. Technological Dissemination: Radio and Film

• The "People’s Receiver": Goebbels mass-produced cheap radios (Volksempfänger). Radio ownership in German households rose from 25% in 1932 to 70% by 1939. These radios had a limited range, ensuring Germans could only hear Nazi-controlled domestic broadcasts.

• Film as Indoctrination: All films required censorship. About half of Germany's pre-1933 film stars emigrated.

  • Pro-Nazi Themes: Films like Ich Klage An (I Accuse) were used to manipulate public opinion in favor of policies like "mercy killing" (euthanasia).

  • Anti-Semitic Themes: The newspaper Der Stürmer and films like The Eternal Jew were used to vilify "outsiders" and "non-Aryans."

4. The War on "Degenerate" Culture

• Traditionalism: The Nazis rejected the experimental, avant-garde culture of 1920s Berlin. They promoted "Socialist Realism"—art that glorified the worker, the soldier, and the "Aryan" family.

• Degenerate Art (Entartete Kunst): Adolf Ziegler organized an exhibition of modern art (expressionism, cubism, etc.) specifically to mock it. The Nazis claimed these styles were a Jewish-Communist conspiracy to undermine German spirit.

• Censorship of the Arts: Artists, writers, and composers were forced to join the Reich Chamber of Culture. Failure to join meant a ban on working or exhibiting.

5. Censorship and the "Burning of the Books"

• May 1933 Bonfires: In a symbolic act of "cleansing," Nazi-led students burned over 25,000 books in Berlin that were deemed "un-German." Authors included Jews, Marxists, and pacifists like Erich Maria Remarque.

• Ransacking Libraries: Libraries and bookstores were purged of "harmful" literature. Censors focused on the race, character, and political leanings of an author rather than the literary quality of the work.

• Impact: This created a cultural "unadventurousness," where only safe, pro-regime content was produced to avoid the risk of imprisonment or "disappearance."

Consolidation and Maintenance of Hitler’s power: Nature, extent and treatment of opposition

1. Nature of Opposition (Who were they?)

Opposition came from four main "blocks":

• Political: The Left (Communists/KPD and Social Democrats/SPD). They were the first targeted but maintained underground networks.

• Institutional: The Military (conservative generals) and the Churches (Catholic and Protestant).

• Youth: Groups like the Edelweiss Pirates and the White Rose who rejected Nazi social control.

• Internal: The SA (Brownshirts), who represented a "second revolution" threat until 1934.

2. Extent of Opposition (How much was there?)

It is important to argue that while there was much dissent, there was very little active resistance until late in the war.

• Low-Level Dissent: "Grumbel" (moaning). People complained about food prices or Nazi officials in private. This was widespread but not a threat to the regime.

• Industrial Resistance: Workers used "passive resistance" like absenteeism, sabotaging machinery, or refusing to give the Nazi salute. Since trade unions were banned (May 1933), there was no way to organize a general strike.

• Active Resistance (Plots): * The July Plot (1944): The most famous attempt. Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg tried to assassinate Hitler with a suitcase bomb at the Wolf's Lair.

  • The White Rose: A student group at Munich University led by Hans and Sophie Scholl. They distributed leaflets calling for an end to the war.

3. Treatment of Opposition (How were they handled?)

Hitler’s approach was a mix of legalized terror and selective violence.

• Concentration Camps: Starting with Dachau (1933), these were used to "re-educate" political opponents. By 1939, 225,000 Germans had passed through the system.

• The Gestapo: They used a network of informants. Most arrests weren't made through detective work, but through denunciations by ordinary neighbors.

• The People’s Court (1934): Set up to try "political offenses." There was no jury and no right of appeal. The judges were fanatical Nazis.

• Executions: Following the July Plot, Hitler had over 5,000 people executed, often in a slow, brutal fashion (using piano wire) to film the deaths and intimidate other officers.

• Gleichschaltung: This was the "treatment" for institutions. Hitler didn't kill the Church or the Army; he "coordinated" them. He signed the Concordat (1933) with the Pope to keep the Catholic Church out of politics.

Consolidation and Maintenance of power: impact of the success and/or failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power of Hitler

Consolidation and Maintenance of Power: Impact of Success/Failure of Foreign Policy

For Hitler, foreign policy was not merely about international relations; it was a primary tool for maintaining domestic popularity and legitimizing the "Führer Myth." Successes in the 1930s reinforced his image as a man of peace and genius, while the ultimate failure of the war led to the collapse of the regime.

1. The Early Successes (1933–1938): "The Diplomatic Genius"

Hitler’s early foreign policy moves were aimed at dismantling the Treaty of Versailles. These were massive domestic triumphs that silenced critics.

• Withdrawal from the League of Nations (1933): Portrayed as a rejection of international "shackles."

• Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936): A massive gamble that succeeded because of the lack of response from Britain and France. This proved to the German military that Hitler’s instincts were superior to those of his generals.

• The Anschluss (1938): The union with Austria was achieved without a shot fired. It fulfilled a long-held nationalist dream and made Hitler appear as a "unifier" of the German people.

2. The Impact of "Appeasement"

• Validation of Radicalism: The "Policy of Appeasement" pursued by Britain (Chamberlain) and France convinced Hitler that the Western powers were weak.

• Munich Agreement (1938): By gaining the Sudetenland through diplomacy, Hitler reached the peak of his domestic popularity. He was seen as a leader who could achieve "Great Germany" without the horrors of a new World War.

3. Expansion and the Shift to War (1939)

• The Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939): A cynical diplomatic success that shocked the world and secured Germany’s eastern flank, allowing the invasion of Poland.

• Maintenance of Power: These successes made Hitler appear infallible. Even those who feared war were won over by the speed and efficiency of the early Blitzkrieg victories in Poland, Norway, and France (1940).

4. Foreign Policy as a Failure: The Turning Point (1941–1945)

• Operation Barbarossa (1941): The invasion of the USSR was the ultimate expression of Hitler’s foreign policy goal of Lebensraum (Living Space). Its failure marked the beginning of the end for his maintenance of power.

• The "War of Attrition": As foreign policy shifted from quick diplomatic wins to a prolonged, losing war, the "Führer Myth" began to crumble. The high casualty rates and Allied bombings of German cities led to the first serious internal opposition (e.g., the July Plot of 1944).

Aims and impact of domestic economic policies

• Methods:

  • Unemployment

    • RAD (Reich Labour Service): Reich Labour Service Act 1935 → mandatory 6 months of military training for men aged 18-25, RAD dug ditches of farms, planted forests

    • Unemployment Relief Act (1935): Built hospitals, 3,500 km of Autobahn

    • Robert Ley’s DAF (German Labour Front): To appease workers after abolishing trade unions, subsidised holidays, sporting, cinemas, Volkswagen installation payment scheme (10 million DAF holidays in 1938).

    • Four Year Plan (1936-1939): Retrained key sectors of the workforce

    • Public Works Project 

  • Rearmament

    • “Guns not butter” motto → economy focussed on rearmament at expense of other industries

    • Increase number in the army and navy

    • Aimed to construct 2 battleships and 21,000 aircraft

  • Self- Sufficiency (Autarky)

    • Hitler blamed Germany’s dependence on foreign imports of food and raw materials, which were blockaded during the war

  • Food

    • Food Through the National Food Corporation, targets were set for every stage of food production from farmers to shopkeepers

    • Peasants resented these policies but they had moderate success

  • Industrial Raw Material

    • Home production of iron, steel and coal were increased

    • Germans were unable to produce rubber and oil thus, scientists were put to work to find alternatives

    • An alternative to rubber called buna was created and manufactured

  • Four Year Plan (1936-1939)

    • Aimed to achieve Autarchy 

    • Increase agricultural production (subsidies for farmers)

    • Government regulation of imports and exports (high tariffs on all imports)

    • Achieve self-sufficiency in raw materials (scientists tried to turn coal into oil, find alternative for rubber, petrol, cotton and coffee)

• Results:

  • Unemployment

    • Unemployment from 6 million (1932) to under 1 million (1939)

    • Some historians believe that Hitler’s success with unemployment was more due to removing people from the count (no Jews, women, men aged 18-25 in their military training): Historian Adam Tooze describes the ‘hidden unemployed’ and calculated that there were still 4 million out of work in 1935

  • Rearmament

    • 100,000 (1933) to 1,400,000 (1939) men in the army

    • Only 5,000 aircraft (out of 21,000) made

    • Had little to export to get materials for rearmament → national debt almost tripled between 1928 and 1938

  • Self-Sufficiency

    • Food production increased by 20% (1928 - 1938)

    • By 1939 Germany was self-sufficient in bread, potatoes and sugar

    • This conflicted with the aim of rearmament as Germany needed high amounts of iron ore

      • Imports rose from 4.5 million in 1933 to 21 million in 1938 

    • Still imported ⅓ of raw materials

    • Migration to cities caused labour shortage (seen in farming income rise of 41%)

    • In 1937 Hitler abandoned it, but not the wider aim of protecting Germany’s economy in the event of war. 

      • Wanted to prioritise rearmament 

Aims and impact of domestic political policies

• Aims

  • Nazification of politics 

  • Establishing totalitarian control of Hitler as Fuhrer

  • Elimination of of opposition and establishment of support

• Methods

  • Gleichschaltung (Glyt-shalt-tung) – the process of Nazification by which Nazi Germany successively established totalitarian control

    • 1933-7 was the period with the systematic elimination of non-nazi organisations

  • For workers, recreational organization called Kraft durch Freude (Strength through Joy) under the German Labor Front (DAF) was set up

    • This brought hobbies and private leisure under control

    • 25 million members – largest Nazi Organisation

    • Reichsberufswettkampf, a national vocational competition was held for workers to compete

  • Sondergericht – were special courts where Jews, Slavs, Communists were tried (bias and their outcome was predetermined)

  • 1934 – People’s court were used to put enemies on trial, with judges only being from the Nazi Party

  • Nuremberg Laws 1935 – could fire someone from their job because they were Jewish 

  • Note: These are more rise to power but some policies he put in to consolidate political control

    • "First Gleichschaltung Law" (Erstes;Gleichschaltungsgesetz, 31 March 1933), passed using Enabling Act, dissolved the diets of all Länder except the recently-elected Prussian parliament, which the Nazis already controlled → Giving control of state authority and the Nazis

    • "Second Gleichschaltung Law" (Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz, 7 April 1933) deployed one Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor)

    • The Law concerning the reconstruction of the ‘Reich’ (Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reiches) (30 January 1934) formally did away with the concept of a federal republic, converting Germany into a highly centralized state. States were reduced to mere provinces, as their institutions were practically abolished altogether. All of their powers passed to the central government.

    • The Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich (1 August 1934) prescribed that upon the death of the incumbent president, that office would be merged with the office of the chancellor, and that the competencies of the former should be transferred to the "Führer und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler", as the law stated.

• Results

  • Hitler able to establish control over Germany, and declare himself Fuhrer

  • Established and enforced Nazi control over Germany

• Terror

  • Aims: To control the German state

  • Methods: Reichstag Fire Decree, suspended the provisions of the German constitution that protected basic individual rights, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of assembly. Also permitted increased state and police intervention into private life, allowing officials to censor mail, listen in on phone conversations, and search private homes without a warrant or need to show reasonable cause

Aims and impact of domestic social policies

• Social

  • Youth

    • Aims

      • Indoctrinate with Nazi ideology 

      • Create loyalty & willingness to sacrifice to greater good of nation →  nationalism/anti-individualism 

      • "Separate spheres" →  boys were to be strong fighters & girls were to bear children

      • 1933 - Government takes over and increases in supporters →  expansion of movement 

      • 1936 - Membership and all other youth organizations banned 

      • Camping outdoor activity, fun games →  intimidation and oath to loyalty 

      • Later, greater focus on military drills and Nazi ideology →  separate for boys and girls

    • Methods

      • 1926 – Hitler Youth established

      • By 1933 its membership stood at 100,000, and 1936 4 million

      • In 1936 it was compulsory to join

    • Boys joined Deutsches Jungvolk which promoted military athletics

    • Girls joined the Bund Deutscher Madel where they were prepared to become good housewives and mothers 

    • By 1934 education was coordinated by the Reich

      • 15% of the timetable was physical education

      • History was changed to idolise Hitler

      • Biology changed to make Aryans to appear like the superior race

  • Results

    • Successes

      • 95% loyal to Hitler 

      • Rapid membership increase after 1933, plus compulsory membership 

      • Brainwashed kids →  students prepared to sacrifice themselves for Nazi loyalty 

      • Hitler Youth became dominant monopoly over German's Youth's spare time

    • Failures

      • Many youth managed to escape the "compulsory memberships" and rival groups emerged 

      • Many turned away from Hitler Youth in later 1930s 

      • The Hitler Youth became less successful with more military training and Nazi lectures etc. 

      • Growing opposition to Hitler Youth - rejection of it + non-Nazi ideas

      • Universities saw a great decrease in numbers as a result of anti-intellectual stress → Brain Drain

• Other

  • Volksgemeinschaft → German expression meaning "people's community which sought to unify Germany racially and socially, and rejected Old religions, ideologies and class divisions instead forming a united German identity based around ideas of race, struggle and state leadership

Aims and impact of domestic cultural policies

• Aims:

  • Hitler considered himself an art expert and wanted all forms of art to represent Nazi ideals and ideology.

  • Gain control of cultural life

  • Hitler created the Reich Chamber of Culture headed by Joseph Goebbels. 

• Historiography

  • Henry Grosshans = Adolf Hitler who came to power in 1933 (quote): "saw Greek and Roman art as uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modern art was [perceived by him as] an act of aesthetic violence by the Jews against the German spirit.

• Methods

  • Paintings

    • Hitler had stated clearly in ‘Mein Kampf’ where his thoughts lay with regards to modern art as found in Dada and cubism: “This art is the sick production of crazy people. Pity the people who are no longer able to control this sickness”

    • Popular themes: The Volk at work in the fields, a return to the simple virtues of Heimat (love of homeland), the manly virtues of the National Socialist struggle, and the lauding of the female activities of child bearing and raising symbolized by the phrase Kinder, Küche, Kirche ("children, kitchen, church").

  • Music

    • Music was expected to be tonal and free of jazz influence

      • regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was considered degenerate and Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical German music

    • Nazis promoted the works of German composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, Anton Bruckner, and Richard Wagner, while banning performances of pieces by "non-Aryans" such as Felix Mendelssohn and Gustav Mahler

  • Literature

    • The most widely-read-or displayed-book of the period was Hitler's Mein Kampf

    • Promoted writers such as writers such as Adolf Bartels and Hitler Youth poet Hans Baumann

    • Themes of War as a Spiritual Experience, Blood and Soil and historical ethnicity 

    • Banned ‘un-national’ literature

    • Book burnings

    • 1933 Book Burning (25,000 books burnt)

    • 2,500 German writers left (1933-1939)

  • Artitecture

    • Nazi architecture adopted many elements of neoclassicism and of art deco in keeping with Adolf Hitler's personal fascination with Ancient Rome

    • Favored hugeness–designed to make the individual feel small and insignificant through its use of high ceilings

    • "Theory of Ruin Value”: Postulated that if a society was to exist past their existence, aesthetically pleasing art and architecture must remain

  • Rallies

    • Nuremberg Rallies to show German military power, glorify state

    • Emphasised order and discipline

  • Radios

    • Controlled by Goebbels’ Reich Radio Company

    • Cheap (35 marks) → 70% of population had one, good method of control

    • Daily ‘hour of the nation’

    • Limited range so no foreign influence

  • Sport

    • 1936 Berlin Olympic Games aimed to demonstrate Aryan superiority

    • 10 African Americans won 13 medals, Jesse Owens broke 11 records, and the event backfired.

    • Nazi Germany won the most medals, a total of 89, with 33 gold medals.

• Results

  • Extensive control of German life

  • Book burnings meant many essential texts were destroyed and humanity lost information contained within them

Impact of policies on women

Aims

• Hitler’s concern of birth rate drop

  • Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church)

    • Promote nuclear family 

    • Housewife

    • Piety

  • fewer women allowed in universities

  • no women allowed in civil service

  • abortion was made illegal

• Impact of War

  • abrupt change in policy

    • conscription of men into army

    • reintroduced women in the workplace

  • war destroyed social conventions

• Methods

  • Workplace discrimination, forced women from employment through bribes of social benefits 

    • Women banned from professional posts (1933) and judicial roles (1936)

    • Hitler reduced amount of women at universities to 10% 

  • Law for the Encouragement of Marriage

    • Loan of 1000 marks from government

    • Money can be claimed by birth of children

    • Women needed to give up job

  • Cross of Honor of the German Mother (Mutterkreuz)

    • Bronze was awarded for 4 children, Silver for 6, and Gold for 8+

  • Laws against make up, hair perming/colour

  • Lebensborn (1936)

    • SS members meet Aryan girls to impregnate and increase Aryan race

  • Law for Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring

    • Sterilised women “unsuitable” to have children i.e. non-Aryans

  • German Women’s Enterprise

    • All women’s societies dissolved and merged into this

    • Ran “mother schools” to train housewives and mothers

• Impact (Positive(?))

  • These policies incentivized and pressured women to become housewives/return to their traditional roles, while also ensuring ‘biological purity”/ and greater propagation of the Aryan race—eugenics.

  • Birth and marriage rates increased

    • The number of births increased by approximately 45% between 1933 and 1939.

    • Marriage Rates: In 1932, there were about 516,000 marriages. By 1934, this jumped to 740,000.

• Impact (Negative)

  • The "Catch-up" Effect: Historians argue that the jump in 1934 wasn't just due to Nazi policy; many couples who had postponed marriage during the 1929–1932 Depression finally felt secure enough to marry. The Nazis simply took the credit.

  • The Failure of "Big" Families: Despite the Mutterkreuz (Mother’s Cross), the average family size did not significantly increase. Most couples used the loans to have two children, but very few reached the "Gold" status of 8 children.

  • Economic Conflict: By 1937, the birth rate began to level off because the Rearmament program required women to return to work. It is hard to encourage "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" when the state simultaneously needs women in munitions factories.

Impact of policies on minorities

Minorities

• Jews 

• Gypsies / Romani

• Black people 

• Disabled people 

• Anyone that was not pure “Aryan” 

• Methods

  • 1933-1934: Exclusion of Jews from public life (banned from being civil servants, public positions,  practicing law)

  • 1935: Legal segregation - Nuremberg Laws

    • Purpose: These laws institutionalized Nazi racial ideology, defining Jews as a separate race rather than just a religious group.

    • Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor: Prohibited marriages and sexual relations (called "race defilement") between Jews and German citizens. It also prohibited Jews from employing German women under 45 as household servants.

    • Reich Citizenship Law: Declared that only those of "German or related blood" could be citizens. Jews were relegated to "state subjects" without political rights, such as voting.

    • Definition of a Jew: The laws defined a Jew not by faith, but by ancestry—specifically having three or four Jewish grandparents.

    • Expansion: These regulations were later extended to target Roma, Sinti, and Black people. 

    • Impact on Society: The Nuremberg Laws provided the legal framework for the systematic persecution, disenfranchisement, and exclusion of Jews from all aspects of German life, such as in schools, employment, and public spaces. These laws facilitated further restrictions, eventually leading to the confiscation of Jewish property and the mass murder of 6 million Jews during the Holocaust.

• Impacts

  • Hitler used the Jews as scapegoats and blamed the loss of the war on them 

  • Similarly blamed them for the post-war economic deprivation 

  • Jews were stereotyped as frugal and unpleasant individuals - i.e. films such as the Eternal Jew would stereotype Jews - played in cinemas to spread anti-Jew propaganda  

Authoritarian control and the extent to which it was achieved

1. Political Control: The Elimination of Alternatives

The Nazi state achieved "Totalitarian" control by legally and physically dismantling the structures of the Weimar Republic.

• Gleichschaltung (Coordination): The process of forcing all German institutions (labor unions, political parties, social clubs) to conform to Nazi ideology.

• One-Party State: By July 1933, the Law Against the Formation of Parties made the NSDAP the only legal political entity.

• Control of the Civil Service: The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (1933) ensured that all government employees were ideologically "reliable" (non-Jewish and non-Socialist).

2. The Apparatus of Terror: Enforcement of Compliance

Control was maintained through a "dual-state" system where traditional law existed alongside arbitrary police terror.

• The SS-Gestapo Complex: Under Heinrich Himmler, the SS and Gestapo (Secret State Police) operated above the law. The Gestapo relied heavily on denunciations—ordinary citizens reporting on neighbors—which created a climate of self-censorship.

• Concentration Camps: By 1934, camps like Dachau served as a permanent threat to political "asocials," trade unionists, and religious dissenters.

• The People’s Court (Volksgerichtshof): Established in 1934 to try "political offenses" (treason), these courts had no independent jury and a high rate of death sentences.

3. Social and Cultural Control: The "Volksgemeinschaft"

The regime sought to control not just behavior, but the private thoughts of its citizens.

• Propaganda: Joseph Goebbels and the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda controlled all media. The People's Receiver (Volksempfänger)—a cheap radio—brought Nazi messaging into every home.

• Education and Youth: The Hitler Youth (HJ) and the League of German Maidens (BDM) replaced all other youth groups. Education was rewritten to emphasize racial science and "blood and soil" ideology.

• The Church: Hitler neutralized religious opposition through the Reichskonkordat (1933) with the Catholic Church and the creation of the pro-Nazi Reich Church for Protestants.

4. Limits to Control: Was the State "Total"?

Despite the appearance of total control, historians note several areas where Hitler’s authority faced friction:

• The "Polycratic" State: The Nazi government was a mess of overlapping agencies (e.g., the Four-Year Plan office vs. the Economics Ministry). This "institutional chaos" meant that policies were often inconsistent.

• Passive Resistance: While active rebellion was rare, "non-conformity" existed (e.g., listening to the BBC, refusing to give the Nazi salute, or the "Swing Youth" who rejected HJ culture).

• The Army: Until 1938 (the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair), the military remained somewhat independent. Hitler only achieved total military control by appointing himself Commander-in-Chief.

The regime was destroyed by External Factors (the Allied military victory), not internal disintegration. This suggests that the Extent of Control was technically successful in preventing domestic collapse, even as the nation was being physically obliterated.