APPSYCH Cognitive Psychology Part 1

Memory

The ability to store, retain, and retrieve information.

Parallel processing

The ability of the brain to simultaneously process multiple pieces of information.

Automatic processing

The unconscious encoding of information without conscious effort.

Recall

The process of retrieving information from memory.

Sensory memory

The initial stage of memory that briefly holds sensory information.

Implicit memory

Memory that is unconsciously retained and expressed through performance.

Recognition

The ability to identify previously learned information.

Short-term memory

The memory system that temporarily holds a limited amount of information.

Iconic memory

The visual sensory memory that lasts for a fraction of a second.

Relearning

The process of learning something again more quickly than the initial learning.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent storage of information.

Echoic memory

The auditory sensory memory that lasts for a few seconds.

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Working memory

The active processing of information in short-term memory.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units to enhance memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Explicit memory

Memory that involves conscious recollection of facts and events.

Mnemonics

Memory aids or strategies that help improve memory.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from memory.

Effortful processing

The encoding of information that requires conscious effort and attention.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in one's judgments and abilities than is justified.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.

Framing

The way information is presented can influence decision-making and judgments.

Spacing effect

The phenomenon where spaced-out study sessions lead to better long-term retention.

Testing effect

The enhanced memory performance resulting from actively retrieving information.

Shallow processing

Encoding information based on its superficial characteristics.

Deep processing

Encoding information based on its meaning and relevance.

Semantic memory

Memory for general knowledge and facts.

Episodic memory

Memory for specific events and personal experiences.

Hippocampus

The brain region involved in the formation of new memories.

Memory consolidation

The process of stabilizing and strengthening memories over time.

Flashbulb memory

A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

The strengthening of synaptic connections, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Priming

The activation of associations in memory, often unconsciously.

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that retrieval is most effective when it occurs in a similar context to encoding.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall information that is congruent with one's current mood.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily than the middle items.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories after a brain injury.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories or events after a traumatic experience or injury.

Proactive Interference

When old information disrupts the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

When new information disrupts the retrieval of old information from long-term memory.

Repression

Psychological defense mechanism that unconsciously blocks disturbing thoughts, memories, or desires from conscious awareness to reduce anxiety.

Reconsolidation

The process by which memories are retrieved and then re-stored, making them susceptible to modification or alteration.

Misinformation Effect

The tendency for new information to distort one's memory of past events, often due to exposure to misleading information. Can lead to the creation of false memories and inaccurate recollection of details. Commonly observed in eyewitness testimonies and can have significant implications in legal settings.

Source amnesia

The inability to remember where or how a specific memory was acquired, while still retaining the memory itself. It often leads to confusion and false attributions of the source of information.

Deja vu

The feeling of having experienced something before, even though it is happening for the first time.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. It includes perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making. Allows us to understand and interact with the world around us, shaping our thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors.

Concept

A mental construct that represents an idea or category. It helps us understand and organize information in our minds.

Prototype

A mental representation of the typical or ideal example of a category. It serves as a cognitive reference point for comparing and categorizing other instances.

Creativity

The ability to generate unique and valuable ideas or solutions, often involving divergent thinking and originality.

Convergent Thinking

A cognitive process that involves narrowing down multiple possibilities to find a single, correct answer or solution to a problem.

Divergent Thinking

A cognitive process that involves generating multiple unique ideas or solutions to a problem. It encourages creativity, flexibility, and originality in thinking.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure used to solve problems or make decisions. It aids in organizing and processing information systematically, leading to efficient problem-solving and decision-making processes.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to solve problems and make decisions quickly. It is a practical approach that may not always guarantee the optimal solution but helps in finding a satisfactory outcome efficiently. Often based on past experiences, intuition, or common sense.

Insight

A sudden understanding or realization of a problem's solution that is not achieved through step-by-step reasoning. It involves a unique and creative perspective that leads to a breakthrough in problem-solving.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and favor information that confirms our existing beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence.

Fixation

An unconscious defense mechanism where an individual remains stuck at a particular stage of psychological development. It occurs when unresolved conflicts from earlier stages are not adequately resolved, leading to fixation and potential emotional or behavioral issues later in life.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach a problem using a familiar strategy that has worked in the past, even if it's not the most effective solution.

Intuition

The ability to understand or know something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning. It is a gut feeling or a hunch that helps guide our decision-making process.

Representativeness Heuristic

Tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or mental prototype, rather than considering statistical information.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Psychologist known for his pioneering work in the field of memory. Conducted experiments on himself to study the process of forgetting and the spacing effect. Developed the forgetting curve and the learning curve. His research contributed to the understanding of memory and learning processes.

Richard Atkinson

American psychologist known for his work on memory and cognitive processes. Co-developed the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, which proposed the existence of three memory stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Also contributed to research on human intelligence and problem-solving strategies.

Richard Shiffrin

American cognitive psychologist known for his work in the field of memory and attention. He developed the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, which proposed the three-stage memory system: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. His research has greatly contributed to our understanding of how information is processed and stored in the human mind.

George A. Miller

American psychologist known for his research on cognitive psychology. Proposed the concept of "chunking" in memory. Coined the phrase "the magical number seven, plus or minus two" to describe human memory capacity. Influential in the field of psycholinguistics and language processing.

Eric Kandel

Studied memory formation in sea slugs, showing that learning involves changes in synaptic connections.

Elizabeth Loftus

Psychologist known for her research on false memories and the misinformation effect. Showed that memories can be altered by misleading information, leading to inaccurate recollections.

Robert Sternberg

American psychologist known for his theory of intelligence, the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. It suggests that intelligence is composed of three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical.

Wolfgang Kohler

German psychologist known for his studies on insight learning. Demonstrated that chimpanzees could solve problems using sudden insight. Challenged behaviorist theories by emphasizing the role of cognition in problem-solving.

Amos Tversky

Pioneered research on cognitive biases and heuristics, such as availability and representativeness. Work challenged traditional views of human decision-making and influenced fields like behavioral economics.

Daniel Kahneman

Known for his work on behavioral economics and cognitive biases. Research has greatly influenced the field of decision-making.