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Definition of culture

Learned, shared, and symbolic system of beliefs, behaviors, values, and objects; culture is dynamic, not static.

Scientific explanation

A logical, testable account based on observation and empirical evidence.

Holistic (anthropology)

Studying humans as whole beings—biological, cultural, linguistic, and historical aspects together.

Theory of uniformitarianism

Natural processes occurring today (erosion, sedimentation) also operated in the past; used to interpret fossils.

Comparative method

Anthropologists compare societies or species to identify similarities, differences, and universal human patterns.

Natural selection key aspects

Variation, heritability, differential survival, and adaptation drive evolution.

Fitness (Darwinian)

An organism’s reproductive success; ability to pass on genes to the next generation.

Laws of human behavior

No fixed laws; human behavior varies across cultures.

Ecological niche

The role a species plays in its environment; crucial for understanding adaptation and survival.

Theories vs. laws

Theories explain why things happen; laws describe what happens. Theories can’t be proven, only supported.

Humans and ancestors term

Hominins.

Unique primate features

Grasping hands, forward-facing eyes, large brain, social behavior, and extended care for young.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction or explanation based on observation.

Phenotype

The observable physical traits, behaviors, and products of an organism.

Chimp-human family debate

Some resist classifying chimps and humans in the same family (Hominidae) due to traditional distinctions.

Ideal primate research method

Long-term field observation of behavior in natural environments.

Non-vocal primate communication

Gestures, facial expressions, grooming, and body posture.

Gracile vs. robust Australopiths

Gracile australopiths likely gave rise to the genus Homo.

Adaptive radiation

Rapid diversification of species; human adaptive radiation aided by culture and tools.

Foramen magnum significance

Position under skull shows upright posture and bipedalism.

Oldowan tools

Simple stone flakes and choppers made by striking rocks together.

Oldowan vs. Acheulean tools

Oldowan = flakes; Acheulean = bifacial hand-axes.

1.8 million-year-old fossil outside Africa

Homo erectus.

Norm of reaction

The range of phenotypes produced by a genotype in different environments.

Paleoanthropologist studies

Fossilized remains of humans and prehuman ancestors.

Primate social structure

Organization of relationships, hierarchies, and mating systems within a primate group.

Biological anthropologist studies

Human evolution, genetics, primate behavior, and fossil evidence.

Cultural anthropologist studies

Modern cultures, globalization, identity, and social change.

Sexual reproduction evolution

Increases genetic diversity and adaptability of species.

Primate conservation methods

Habitat protection, anti-poaching laws, and community education.

Participant observation

Living among people being studied and participating in daily activities.

Usefulness of anthropology

Promotes cross-cultural understanding in an interconnected world.

Neanderthal DNA

Modern non-Africans have 1–4% Neanderthal DNA, showing interbreeding.

Role of fire in evolution

Provided warmth, protection, cooking, and social bonding; evidence from ~1 million years ago.

Early hominin meat gathering

Scavenging from predator kills and cooperative hunting using tools.

Loss of pigmentation

Adaptation in low sunlight regions to improve vitamin D production.

First hominin in Americas

Homo sapiens migrating via the Bering land bridge ~15,000 years ago.

Symbolic communication

Using symbols, gestures, or words to represent abstract ideas.

Human language uniqueness

Grammar, syntax, displacement (past/future), and productivity (new ideas).

Most powerful transmitter of culture

Language.

Language complexity

All human languages are equally complex and expressive.

Language learning age

Critical period during early childhood, usually before age seven.

Protolanguage

Ancestral simple form of language that evolved into modern tongues.

Human vs. animal communication

Humans use symbolic grammar; animal calls are fixed and emotion-based.

Larynx and choking

Lowered human larynx allows speech but increases choking risk.

Pidgin

A simplified mixed language formed between groups without a common language; may evolve into a creole.

Color recognition

Cultures categorize and name colors differently based on language and perception.