PSY 302--Final Exam

sampling, external validity, and ethical practices

representative sample

a sample that reflects the characteristics of the population in the same proportion as they exist in that population

sample size and ease of recruiting

what are the two limitations of a representative sample?

false

true or false: a sample must represent a population on all characteristics.

a and c

which of the following require more attention to creating a sample of participants representative of the population?

a. correlational

b. experimental

c. descriptive

d. none of the above

probability sampling

the size and composition of the population is known, and participants are chosen from the population such that the researcher can calculate the probability of any given person being chosen for the sample

nonprobability sampling

used when the probabilities cannot be calculated, typically because the exact size and characteristics of the population are not known

sampling frame

a list of all potential participants in a population; necessary for probability sampling

selection bias

when a sample is not representative

simple random sampling

each person has the same fixed probability of being included in the sample because the same chance procedure is used to determine which individuals are chosen; most basic approach

systemic sampling

participants of the sample are chosen at select intervals; (i.e., every 3rd person is selected)

stratified sampling

participants are chosen from a population comprising various subgroups (strata) in such a way that each subgroup is represented; participants are then selected from each stratum either randomly or systematically

cluster sampling

a population is first subdivided into smaller, often geographical groups (clusters), and a random sample of each of these clusters is drawn

multistage sampling

multiple stages of clustering with sampling at each cluster (e.g., states → cities → neighborhoods)

convenience sampling

the selection of participants is neither random or systematic but rather governed by chance or ready availability

quota sampling

researchers select a prespecified number of individuals with specific background characteristics like race, age, ethnicity, sex, or education

snowball sampling

the researcher asks existing participants to recommend others until researcher has enough

external validity

generalizability of the research; dependent on:

• the type of claim being made

• definition of the population and sampling technique

• authenticity of the research protocol

population validity

the extent to which study results from a sample can be generalized to the population of interest

direct replication

what is one way to increase external validity of a research study considering you increase internal validity by decreasing external validity?

ecological validity

addresses generalizability to “real life” settings (e.g., from lab to reality)

experimenter’s dilemma

higher internal validity tends to produce lower external validity

field experiment

what is the only exception to the experimenter’s dilemma?

respect for persons

individuals should be treated as autonomous agents; those with diminished autonomy must be protected

beneficence

researchers must assure the participants’ well-being; the research should cause no harm, minimize risks, and maximize the benefits to individual participants

justice

researchers must consider the goals and impact of the research on all who stand to be affected; participants should be selected based on the rationale for the research and not by convenience; benefits should apply to all equally

beneficence and nonmaleficence

endorses protection from harm, based on the welfare and rights of humans and the welfare of animals

fidelity and responsibility

suggests that psychologists build trust, conduct their business professionally, cooperate with others, and provide responsible services

integrity

focuses on the importance of accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the work of psychologists

justice

recognizes issues of fairness of access and benefits

respect for people’s rights and dignity

emphasizes respect, dignity, and worth of individuals, independent of their differences, guaranteeing privacy and confidentiality

privacy and confidentiality

the practice of not disclosing personal or identifying information about a participant beyond what is necessary for carrying out the study

right to withdraw

even after individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research project, they may change their minds and opt out of the project at any time with no negative consequences

informed consent

the process of providing individuals enough information about their participation in a particular study prior to the beginning of that study in order to allow them to make a voluntary choice to participate

deception and debriefing

sometimes researchers must deceive the participant in order to obtain genuine responses; they are later given all of the correct information once the study is complete

institutional review boards

an independent group that reviews proposed research studies to ensure ethical standards are met

informed assent

a process of asking for willingness to participate that is less formal than informed consent

replacement

consider methods that avoid using vertebrate animals by using computer models or invertebrate animals

refinement

use procedures that minimize harm and enhance the well-being of the animals

reduction

consider methods that minimize the number of animals and maximize the info acquired

fraud

misrepresentation of facts, or lying

c

In a college, 25% of the students live in college-owned campus housing and 75% of students live off campus. To ensure that each group is represented appropriately, a researcher randomly chooses 25 students who live in college-owned housing and 75 students who live off campus to constitute a 100-student sample. What type of sampling technique is this?

a. cluster sampling

b. simple random sampling

c. stratified sampling

d. multistage sampling

e. systematic sampling

a

A researcher randomly chooses eight sections of Composition II and collects data from students in each section for a study of math skills. What type of sampling technique is this?

a. cluster sampling

b. simple random sampling

c. stratified sampling

d. multistage sampling

e. systematic sampling

e

To survey employees in a large company about their feelings regarding a new work policy, a researcher obtains a list of employee phone extensions. She selects every 510th person from the list to participate in the survey. What type of sampling technique is this?

a. cluster sampling

b. simple random sampling

c. stratified sampling

d. multistage sampling

e. systematic sampling

b

To investigate how the residents of a specific residence hall feel about upcoming renovations, researchers put invitations to participate in focus groups into 50 randomly selected mailboxes of hall residents. What type of sampling technique is this?

a. cluster sampling

b. simple random sampling

c. stratified sampling

d. multistage sampling

e. systematic sampling

d

To obtain a representative sample of new psychology students in the state, a researcher randomly selects 25 colleges in the state and then from each college randomly selects 2 sections of introductory psychology from which to gather data. What type of sampling technique is this?

a. cluster sampling

b. simple random sampling

c. stratified sampling

d. multistage sampling

e. systematic sampling

b

Why is a master list of all members of the population important to probability sampling?

a. To assign certain participants to the experimental and control groups

b. To avoid selection bias when sampling.

c. To allow for random assignment.

d. To ensure a diverse sampling frame.

a

A research methods instructor wants to investigate the influence of active learning techniques on student motivation for students in her class this semester, which is the population of interest. She enters the ID numbers of the 150 students in her class into a random number generator and then selects 35 students to participate in an active learning activity and follow-up questionnaire. The researcher used

a. simple random sampling.

b. systematic sampling.

c. stratified sampling.

d. cluster sampling.

a

In which of the following situations would probability sampling be appropriate?

a. When the population is large but can be broken into smaller groups that can then be sampled randomly or systematically.

b. Participants are chosen by their accessibility, making it fairly easy to acquire a sample.

c. When recruiting participants from a population that might be difficult to access, the researcher depends upon the first participants to ask their own contacts to also participate.

d. When the size and compilation of the population is not clearly defined.

d

Dr. Padilla wants to measure attitudes related to scientific productivity among attendees at a national conference on higher education. To narrow the sampling frame, Dr. Padilla divides the participant list into regions of the country and randomly selects two states from each region. She then divides each state list into public and private universities and randomly selects two universities from each state. Finally, Dr. Padilla selects 50 participants randomly from this narrowed list. This type of sampling would be considered

a. systematic.

b. simple random.

c. cluster.

d. multistage.

b

This approach can be used to make certain that sampling occurs throughout the entire sampling frame. This approach does not require a random numbers table or generator, but relies on selecting individuals that have a specific placement in the sampling frame.

a. Multistage sampling

b. Systematic sampling

c. Stratified sampling

d. Cluster sampling

c

A dog owner is asked to refer other dog owners, who are then asked to refer still other dog owners to a researcher who is conducting a survey on dog food brands. What nonprobability sampling technique is this?

a. convenience sampling

b. quota sampling

c. snowball sampling

b

In order to obtain an equal number of male and female participants, an industrial-organizational psychologist approaches the first 15 men who enter a room and then the first 15 women who enter the same room to get a sample of 30 participants, which reflects the percentage of men and women who work for this organization. What nonprobability sampling technique is this?

a. convenience sampling

b. quota sampling

c. snowball sampling

a

While studying the relationship between stress and exercise in adults, a researcher posts a link to an online survey on her Facebook timeline with a note asking her Facebook friends to complete it. What nonprobability sampling technique is this?

a. convenience sampling

b. quota sampling

c. snowball sampling

b

A researcher is assembling a sample of 100 participants from the undergraduate population on a college campus. He begins by recruiting Asian American students from the psychology undergraduate participant pool and stops recruiting once there are 12 Asian American students participating; this number represents the percentage of Asian American undergraduates on campus. He then recruits 88 other students. What nonprobability sampling technique is this?

a. convenience sampling

b. quota sampling

c. snowball sampling

c

A researcher asks an online support group for patients with a rare disorder to participate in a study, and also asks each of these patients to ask others they know with the same disorder to participate. Those new participants are also asked to recruit others with the disorder. What nonprobability sampling technique is this?

a. convenience sampling

b. quota sampling

c. snowball sampling

a

A researcher asks her coworkers and friends to participate in a study. What nonprobability sampling technique is this?

a. convenience sampling

b. quota sampling

c. snowball sampling

c

A cognitive scientist is interested in applying the findings of his memory study to all adult learners in the United States. He decides to use the student research participant pool at his university for his sample because they are easily accessible. This is an example of

a. simple random sampling.

b. snowball sampling.

c. convenience sampling.

d. cluster sampling.

a

A researcher uses a nonprobability technique to recruit participants, taking steps to ensure that important subgroups are represented proportionally in the sample. This technique is known as

a. quota sampling.

b. cluster sampling.

c. snowball sampling.

d. convenience sampling.

d

If a sampling frame is not available, a researcher can use

a. cluster sampling.

b. probability sampling.

c. simple random sampling.

d. nonprobability sampling.

c

If a researcher wishes to study a population that is hard to locate then which of these is generally the preferred method of sampling?

a. Quota sampling

b. Cluster sampling

c. Snowball sampling

d. Convenience sampling

d

Which of these sampling methods do not yield data that generalize to the larger population?

a. Stratified sampling

b. Cluster sampling

c. Systematic sampling

d. Convenience sampling

d

Which of the following is not important to evaluating the external validity of a study?

a. The level of authenticity of the research methodology

b. The population of interest and the sampling method.

c. The type of claim made by the researchers.

d. The prestige of the journal in which the research is published.

d

Which of the claims listed below would have a high degree of generalizability?

a. Owning a pet increases feelings of happiness.

b. Punishing children results in a decrease in their misbehavior.

c. Test-taking in small classrooms increases students’ anxiety.

d. Reaction time in a visual selection task decreases with age.

b

A study that lacks external validity

a. has a high degree of generalizability.

b. can still represent high-quality research.

c. is not worthwhile.

d. should only be conducted when the population is limited.

d

A researcher knew that her findings would only generalize to the patients at her private clinic. Her study can be said to have

a. little or no value.

b. high generalizability.

c. high external validity.

d. low external validity.

a

Which of these claims has the strongest external validity?

a. Heart rate increases when adrenaline production increases.

b. Women provide more food calories in hunter-gatherer societies.

c. Men are better at professions requiring mathematics and engineering skills.

d. The age at which a child first walks is a predictor of their level of extraversion.

a

If a researcher takes care to ensure a high level of generalizability in a study, which type of validity could be limited as a result?

a. Internal validity

b. External validity

c. Population validity

d. Statistical validity

b

Which research design has the highest population validity for a study whose population of interest is students enrolled at a certain university?

a. Stand outside the university’s career center and recruit participants as they enter the building.

b. Ask the registrar for a list of all the students enrolled at the university and randomly select participants.

c. Visit each dorm and recruit a certain number of students from each floor.

d. Visit the campus recreation center and ask every other person who passes to participate.

c

A researcher conducted a study with 1-year-old children to measure the influence of an adult model versus a child model on imitation in toddlers. To strengthen external validity of study, the researcher could

a. more closely control for the influence of outside variables.

b. re-run the statistical analyses.

c. replicate the study with a group of toddlers who are 2-years-old.

d. replicate the study with a group of 16-year-olds.

a

A researcher wants to know how often U.S. high school students engage in physical activity during their free time. She asks the athletic office at the local high school for a list of all the students who are on the school’s sports team so she can randomly select participants from this list. Her population of interest is U.S. high school students. What is the group from which her sample is actually drawn?

a. Students at the researcher’s local high school who are on the sports teams.

b. All students enrolled at this high school.

c. All the students at this high school who engage in physical activity.

d. All high school students in the United States.

d

The population of interest for a research study is adolescents in the United States aged 13–15. The researcher recruits 50 participants from a local junior high school and sets up a laboratory experiment to examine the influence of peers on learning tasks. The researcher takes care only to manipulate the independent variable and hold all other variables constant. In this example, the researcher has minimized

a. population validity to maximize external validity.

b. both external validity and population validity.

c. internal validity to maximize population validity.

d. population validity to maximize internal validity.

c

A researcher was interested in the relationship between multitasking during class and memory for the material discussed during that class. After recruiting 35 college students, she decided to observe the participants’ multitasking behaviors during class in a large lecture hall, and then asked them to take a short quiz on the material from that day’s class session. The level of authenticity for this study would be

a. low, because the researcher only recruited a small number of participants.

b. moderate, because this is a correlational study.

c. high, because the multitasking observed should reflect a typical class situation.

d. unknown, because the population of interest is not defined.

b

Why would a researcher choose to conduct a study in a laboratory setting instead of a real-world setting?

a. To increase authenticity

b. To maximize internal validity

c. To maximize external validity

d. To make conclusions about how the findings would apply to the real world

a

A developmental psychology researcher wanted to study sharing among preschool children in her laboratory. When the children entered the lab, however, they were nervous and much more timid than they were at home or in their preschool classroom. In this case, the study’s setting

a. has low authenticity.

b. has high authenticity.

c. promotes generalizability.

d. is unethical.

b

When trying to decide whether to conduct a study in a laboratory setting or a real-world setting, a researcher should consider the importance of

a. statistical validity.

b. both authenticity and internal validity.

c. authenticity alone.

d. internal validity alone.

a

Why would a researcher choose to conduct a study in a real-world setting instead of a laboratory setting?

a. To increase authenticity

b. To maximize internal validity

c. To minimize external validity

d. To minimize generalizability

b

A representative sample

a. represents one important characteristic of the population

b. reflects the characteristics of the population in the same proportion as in the population

c. consists of one person with every important characteristic in the population

d. is identical in size to the population

a and b

Which populations would likely require a researcher to use a nonprobability sampling technique?

a. individuals over age 70 in the US

b. adolescents who report regular use of marijuana

c. students in your research methods course

d. elected officials in your hometown

d

An elementary school principal was interested in a reading intervention that would benefit the 100 first graders at his school. Because administering the test was time consuming, he planned to test only 20 first graders. Given that the principal has access to his population of interest, he should choose a ______ sampling technique to ensure that the socioeconomic status of the students in his sample matches the variation of socioeconomic status in the population of first grade students.

a. convenience

b. snowball

c. systematic

d. stratified

a and b

Which of the following techniques do not require the researcher to know the entire size and compilation of a population?

a. quota sampling

b. snowball sampling

c. stratified sampling

d. multistage sampling

c

A researcher wants to know if engaging in physical activity is associated with a student’s GPA. She randomly selects 10 high schools in her county and sits in each school’s cafeteria to recruit students during their lunch period. Her population of interest is students in the US between the ages of 15 and 18. What could this researcher do to ensure strong external validity?

a. change the age range of selected participants to 13 and 20

b. solicit participants from the athletic department on the selected campuses

c. employ a sampling strategy to select participants from across the US

d. contact students through the registrar’s list

a, b, and d

Select that variable(s) that would not be considered generalizable.

a. preferred social media platform

b. time spent using the internet per day

c. brain activation when feeling fear

d. response to individuals in a position of authority

b

A researcher wants to investigate whether the way women who have recently given birth feel toward lactation counseling predicts frequency of breastfeeding. Which design has the highest population validity?

a. stand outside a yoga studio and recruit women as they exit a prenatal yoga class

b. obtain permission from the local hospital to recruit patients from the maternity ward

c. recruit women who breastfeed, and then ask them to recruit women they know who breastfeed

d. take a random sample from all moms with children enrolled at a local elementary school

a

Why might a study’s sample be intentionally limited?

a. to increase the study’s internal validity

b. to increase population validity

c. to maximize authenticity

d. to use a probability sampling technique

c

Why is authenticity important?

a. If a study has good authenticity, then you know that any change in the dependent variable is due to a change in the independent variable.

b. If a study has good authenticity, then you know that the study can be replicated.

c. If a study has good authenticity, then you know that the findings can be generalized to the real world.

d. A study with good authenticity will be more respected by other scientists.

justice

Tuskegee Study Violation: the subjects were 600 low-income African American men

beneficence

Tuskegee Study Violation: the infected men were never given adequate treatment for their disease. Even when a cure was discovered, researchers did not tell the men about it or offer it to them.

respect for persons

Tuskegee Study Violation: the participants were not provided with informed consent.

d

Which of the following is not a reason why codes of ethics are established in a profession?

a. To protect the welfare and rights of research participants.

b. To assure the quality of the body of knowledge in the discipline.

c. To maintain the integrity of the professionals.

d. To establish guidelines for membership to the organization.

a

Which of these terms describe a set of principles agreed upon by a group?

a. ethics

b. morals

c. rights

d. responsibilities

d

Which of these was a practice in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study?

a. Participants gave informed consent.

b. Participants were given a choice to participate.

c. Participants were given a choice to withdraw.

d. Participants were not treated for syphilis.

d

Which of these is not one of the core principles for ethical research in The Belmont Report?

a. Respect for Persons

b. Beneficence

c. Justice

d. Fidelity and Responsibility

b

A research team is conducting a study in which they must collect participants’ blood samples. To minimize risks, the research team ensures that their staff is well-trained, and provides the participants with safety recommendations such as drinking plenty of fluids before the blood draw. Here, the research team is guided by the ethical principle of

a. Respect for Persons

b. Beneficence

c. Justice

d. Fidelity and Responsibility

a

The APA Ethical Principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence mean

a. protection from harm.

b. service excellence.

c. honesty and integrity.

d. fairness and justice.

c

Which of the following would not be a violation of an APA Ethical Standard?

a. A researcher discloses personal information about a participant without their consent.

b. A researcher pressures a participant to continue in spite of their discomfort.

c. A researcher initially deceives a participant to conceal the true purpose of the study.

d. A researcher does not provide a participant with any information before recruiting them for a study.

b

What is the relationship between the APA Ethical Principles and Ethical Standards?

a. Principles are specific applications of the standards.

b. Standards are specific applications of the principles.

c. There is no relationship; principles and standards are two entirely different things.

d. The two terms are interchangeable.

b

What is the general principle that psychologists should build trust, conduct their business professionally, cooperate with other psychologists, and provide responsible services?

a. Beneficence and nonmaleficence

b. Fidelity and responsibility

c. Integrity

d. Justice

e. Respect for people’s rights and dignity

a

Which of these is(are) required by the IRB when gaining informed consent from a participant?

a. Participants must be able to make a voluntary choice to participate.

b. Participants must be informed about possible deception before the study begins.

c. Participants must be informed about the expected outcome of the study.

d. Participants can only withdraw from the study at any time before data collection begins.

c

When obtaining informed consent, which of the following would not be considered a vulnerable participant?

a. A child

b. An adult with an intellectual disability

c. An adult over the age of 65

d. A prisoner

a

Deception occurs when

a. the information initially provided to the participants is incomplete or inaccurate.

b. information is provided at the end of the project to correct any misinformation.

c. individuals are provided enough information about the project to make a decision to participate.

d. researchers protect participants’ rights.