Unit 4A Social Psychology

Attributions

people's explanations for why events or actions occur

dispositional attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones

Situational attribution

attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck

Explanatory style

One's habitual way of explaining life events. Can be optimistic or pessimistic

Optimistic

hopeful and confident about the future

Pessimistic

seeing the worst side of things; no hope

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

Internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

External locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

relative deprivation

individuals experience feelings of deprivation or dissatisfaction when they perceive that they or their group are worse off than others

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Out-group bias

tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar

In-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

Belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

social norms

The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members

social influence theory

theory that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

the influence other people have on us because we want to be right

Persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

central route persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

halo effect

tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements

Foot-in-the Door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face technique

persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

individualism

a social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control.

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

multiculturalism

The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences/conflict among people and require their cooperation (Robbers Cave Experiment)

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

burnout

a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

social debt

offender's criminal history should be considered in sentencing

social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

situational variables

Elements of a situation may influence whether someone is likely to help another person

person perception

The mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of other people.

attribution theory

suggests how we explain someone's behavior—by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

explicit bias

conscious thoughts, voluntarily formed prejudices

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Stanford Prison Study

A social psychological study conducted at Stanford University by Philip Zimbardo. Its aim was to study the impact of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play the role of either prisoner or guard. This study was terminated early because of the role-induced punitive behavior on the part of the "guards."

Milgram's Obedience Study

study of the phenomenon of obedience to an authority figure, examined the effects of punishment on learning (shock treatment for mistakes, 65% shocked dangerous amounts when ordered

Asch Conformity Study

took something that was non-ambiguous; asked people to look at 3 lines and identify which line was the longest. when people did it individually, they said right answer. when the individuals were in groups, people conformed and said the wrong answer because everyone else in the group was saying it

social exchange theory

the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs

outgroup homogeneity bias

the assumption that outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another

APA Ethical Guidelines

No Coercion (voluntary). Informed Consent. Anonymity. Risk (not in risk of SERIOUS harm mentally or physically). Debriefing. Right to withdrawal

frustration-aggression hypothesis

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

biopsychosocial of aggression

1. Genetics, chemicals, and/or injury 2. Beliefs in response to: frustrations, modeling, rewards, and/or lack of perceived control. 3. Deindividuation, hostile environment, parental involvement, ostracism, and/or social scripts

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment