Module 2 Survey of World History

In which specific region do scholars believe cities first appeared?

Sumer, located at the Southeastern end of Mesopotamia within the Fertile Crescent.

According to the transcript, when did the Sumerians arrive in the region?

Around $5000\,BCE$.

What are the two primary theories regarding the formation of Sumerian cities?

Some believe they sprang up around temple communities established by priests, while others suggest 'strong men' gained control over water use to bring people together.

How was the political structure of Sumerian cities organized?

They were independent cities, not part of a single kingdom or empire, each having its own king and frequently fighting one another.

What geographic factor made the region of Sumer particularly difficult for its inhabitants?

It lacked natural barriers against invasion and suffered from unpredictable, destructive flooding from the Tigris River.

Which famous Sumerian city is noted for its monumental ziggurat?

Ur.

What was the function and religious significance of a ziggurat?

It was a monumental structure topped with a temple, used for ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it served as the focal point of the city dedicated to a specific god.

How is Sumerian religion described in the transcript?

It was gloomy, reflected the harsh environment, had no clear idea of an afterlife, and involved praying to gods primarily to avoid harm and crop destruction.

What significant transportation tool did Sumerians invent during the fourth millennium BC?

The wheel.

What metallurgical advancement did the Sumerians achieve by mixing copper and tin?

They created the alloy bronze, which produced harder and sharper weapons and tools.

The Sumerian mathematical system was based on which unit?

Units of $60$, which is still used today in geometry, trigonometry, and telling time.

What was the initial form of writing used by Sumerians before cuneiform?

Clay tokens used to represent shipments, taxes, dowries, or inheritances.

What is cuneiform and how was it created?

A script made of small wedge-shaped characters created by pushing a stylus into wet clay; it appeared around the middle of the fourth millennium BCE.

Who was Marduk in Sumerian culture?

One of the most important Sumerian gods; the transcript mentions a 'field of Marduk' that produced crops to support priests.

What was the purpose of a cylinder seal?

An artifact rolled across wet clay or wax to leave symbols demonstrating ownership of goods or shipments.

Who is credited as the world's first emperor?

Sargon, who conquered the Sumerian cities around $2300\,BCE$ and established the Akkadian Empire.

Where was Sargon from, and what was the nature of his people?

Sargon was from Akkad (near present-day Baghdad); the Akkadians were a Semitic people who spoke a language related to modern Arabic and Hebrew.

What led to the collapse of the Akkadian Empire around $2200\,BCE$?

A drought that affected the entire area and made it impossible to grow enough crops.

What is King Hammurabi of Babylon best remembered for?

His law code, which was codified into a single written form on a stela (a large rock pillar).

Who were the primary successors to Sumerian culture mentioned in the lecture?

The Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and the Chaldees (New Babylonians).

When did the annual flood of the Nile River typically begin and peak?

The flood began in June and reached its peak in late September or early October.

Which fifth-century Greek historian commented that Egyptian land was so fertile you could simply throw seeds out and get a rich crop?

Herodotus

What does the ankh symbol represent in ancient Egyptian culture?

It symbolizes both the Nile River and life.

Who was the god that personified the inundation (flood) of the Nile River?

Hapi

How did the dry climate of Egypt influence their cultural beliefs?

The dryness preserved items ranging from foodstuffs to human bodies, contributing to beliefs in permanence, the eternal, and renewal.

According to Egyptian myth, who reassembled the body of Osiris to give him life after he was killed by his brother?

Isis

Which falcon-headed deity was believed to be the pharaoh in a human form?

Horus

Upon the death of a pharaoh, what was believed to happen to them in relation to the gods?

They became one with Osiris.

What term did the Egyptians use to describe the soul?

The Ka

Which jackal-headed god was associated with the process of mummification?

Anubis

How tall was the Great Pyramid of Cheops, and how long did it remain the tallest structure in the world?

$481\,\text{feet}$ tall, and it remained the tallest structure until the eighteenth century of the common era.

Why were boat images and actual boats placed in Egyptian tombs?

It was believed that the Ka must cross a symbolic river on their path to the afterlife.

According to scholars, the Sphinx is likely an image of which type of person?

One of the pharaohs buried in one of the great pyramids.

Where were most pharaohs buried during the New Kingdom when they stopped building pyramids?

The Valley of the Kings

How did the availability of the afterlife change during the Middle Kingdom?

The afterlife was opened to all people, including common people, due to the creation of inexpensive mummification.

What makes the pharaoh Tutankhamun especially famous in the modern era?

His tomb survived undisturbed into the modern era, whereas most other tombs were robbed.

Which two animals appeared on the pharaoh's forehead as traditional defenders of Egypt from foreign threats?

A vulture and a cobra

How old was Ramesses the second believed to be when he died?

Roughly $94\,\text{years old}$

In what year was the Rosetta Stone found, and what did it include?

Found in $1799$, it included the same inscription using three different scripts: hieroglyphics, a simplified Egyptian script, and Greek.

Who was the man responsible for finally deciphering hieroglyphs using the Rosetta Stone?

Jean Francois Champollion