APES Review

Symbiosis

two species in a close, long term relationship

Equation for anything related to productivity

NPP=GPP-RL

10% rule

Multiply amount of energy by (10/100) or (1/10) pr (0.1)

Carbon cycle

carbon enters ground through decomposition, stored for millions of years. Dig up fossil fuels and burn them, releasing lots of co2 into the atm. Takes much longer to store carbon underground and form fossil fuels than it does to burn them

Phosphorus cycle

Stored in rocks. Released via weathering and erosion. No gas or atmospheric. Not a lot of it naturally in ecosystems, takes a long time to form. When present is used quickly by plants.

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen gas(n2) in ATM is unusable but is a major reservoir of it. Fixed by bacteria or humans to make it usable, plants need it to grow

Water'/hydrologic cycle

powered by sun, ocean is largest reservoir. Ice caps and groundwater are smaller reserves

Primary productivity

rate at which sunlight is converted into sugar via photosynthesis over time

Pioneer and keystone species, indicator species

Pioneer is fisrt to colonize an area. Keystone species vital to ecosystem stability. Indicator species, species whose presence indicates quality of the ecosystem

Provisioning

ecosystem service. Natural resources(food, wood, medicine)

Regulating

ecosystem service. Regulation of climate and air(forests remove co2)

Supporting

ecosystem service. Support processes humans do(pollinators pollinate crops)

Cultural

ecosystem services. Recreational acitivties

Zone graph

Optimum range, tolerance range. zone of physiological stress, zone of intolerance

Primary and secondary succession

Primary-growth of forest from bare rock(no soil). Secondary succession-growth of forest from pre established soil(usually after disturbance)

Biotic potential

maximum reproductive rate of a population in ideal condition.

Density dependent factors and density independent factors

dependent- factors that influence population growth based on size. Independent- factors that influence population growth regardless of size

Survivorship types

I- high survivorship most of life, die of old age. II- steady survivorship throughout life. III- high mortality early, few make it to adulthood

Carrying capacity

max number of individuals an ecosystem can support. Can go over carrying capacity, if carrying capacity is overshor then rapid die off.

Population growth and resources

unlimited resources=fast growth. Limited resources=increased mortality, decreased fecundity

Five stages of demographic transition

1-high birth and death rate, population relatively stable. 2-high birth rate death rate falling rapidly leads to population growth. 3- falling birth rate, slowing down of death rate, slowing down of growth. 4- low birth and death rate, falling then stable growth. 5- low and low, little change, declining population growth

Population change formula

(immigration+birth)-(emigration+deaths)

Percent change

(new value-old value)/old value x 100

Crude birth rate

number of births/1000

Doubling time

70/growth rate value

New population size

original population+population change

Growth rate(percent)

(CBR-CDR)/10

Crude death rate

number of deaths/1000

Soil fertility

ability of soil to produce plant growth

Soil horizon

layers of the soil

Coriolis effect

rotation of earth that deflects wind

Insolation

incoming solar radiation

El Nino Southern Oscillation(ENSO)

pattern of warming and cooling that repeats every 2-7 years

3 different types of plate boundaries

divergent, convergent, transform. Different boundaries can lead to different earth forms.

Soil is a mixture of

sand, silt, Clay, humus(organic stuff), nutrients, air, water, living organisms

How is soil formed

from the weathering of parent material(some kind of rock) Erosion is transportation of particle by wind or water

Soil horizons(top to bottom)

O horizon- organic matter. A- topsoil, humus(decomposed organic matter). B- subsoil, mostly minerals. C horizon: bedrock

How to use soil texture triangle

Use this determine type of soil, based on % of each particle in soil sample.

What soil is plant growth

Loam, balances porosity drainage with H2o holding cap

Difference between healthy and unhealthy soil

Healthy has lots of nutrients to help plants grow, also has right amount of water. Unhealthy is caused by erosion which can be caused by tilling. Unhealthy can also be caused by compaction because of machinery and livestock, nutrient depletion

Gases ATM is made of

Nitrogen=78%. Oxygen-21%. Water vapor=0-4. Argon=.93. Co2=0.04

Layers of atmopshere from closest to farthest

Troposphere(weather occurs), stratosphere(ozone), mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Gets colder as you travel

Earths seasons are caused by

Tilt. Geography(oceans, mountains) can disrupt wind patterns.

Rain shadow

One side of mountain rainy, the other dry

Tilling

using machines to break up soil before planting, causes soil erosion. Less nutrients, air and water pollution

El nino characterisitcs

trade winds weaken then reverse(w to e). Suppressed upwelling and less productive fisheries in SA. Increased precipitation and flooding in the Americas(coast especially). Droughts in SE Asia and australia.

Trade winds

east to west prevailing winds that flow in earth’s equatorial regions. Blow mainly from northeast in northern hemisphere and from southeast in southern hemisphere. Strengthen in winter and when arctic osicilliation is in warm phase

Pesticide treadmill

need to use more pesticide as pests become resistant

Integrated pest management(IPM)

use of many techniques to control pests with the least environmental disturbances. Requires lots of time and money

Drip irrigation

the most efficient irrigation method

Aqua culture

farming fishing/shellfish

Monocropping

plant one species, less biodiversity and more soil erosion

Slash and burn

cut down vegetation to make farms. Leads to deforestation, releases GHG, air pollution

Biocontrol

natural predators eat pests

Crop rotation

rotates crops each season redue=ces chance pest becomes established(disrupts food choice).

Intercropping

push pull system. mPush plants emit volatile chemicals to repel pests, pull plants emit chemicals to attract natural predators.

Spray, furrow, flood, irrigation are

cheaper, easier, less efficient. Waterlogging(over watering), soil salinization(too salty due to evaporation). Solution-switch to drip irrigation

Feedlot(cafo’s)

lots of profit in small area, cheaper meat. Antibiotics and growth hormones, manure lagoons, lots of ghg’s, like methane, nitrous oxide, co2 produced

Free range grazing

no antibiotics or growth hormones, no need for corn, no waste problems(poop wherever). grazie land that cannot support crops. Needs lots of of land, more expensive meat. Overgrazing can lead to erosion and desertification, can increase plant growth, rotational graze to prevent water loss, erosion

Overfishing

tragedy of the commons, fishers began collapsing due to increase harmful fishing methods like bottom trawling.

Methods to prevent soil erosion

contour plowing, terracing, perennial crops, windbreaks, no till agriculture.

Watershed

area of land where all water drains

Overburden

surface of land moved to access ore during mining

Impervious surfaces

surface that water cannot penetrate

Urban sprawl

movment of people out of dense urban centers to suburban areas

Saltwater intrusion

saltwater enters aquifers as groundwater is consumed near coastlines

Maximum sustainable yield

max amount a resource can be used without being deployed.

Clearcutting

removal of forest. Causes soil erosion, increases temp, flooding. Clearcut to create tree plantations/farms. Reduces biodiversity

Slash and burn

method to quickly remove forest cut trees and burn them to make room for agriculture, adds ghgs to atmosphere.

Sustainable forestry methods

slectrive strip cutting, no big machinery, reforestation, recycle wood. Forest management includes the use of prescribed burns. Removes dead biomass that could be fuel for larger fires. Help recycle nutrients

Eutrophication

nutrient pollution

Acid mine drainage

rainwater seeps into mine creating sulfuric acid that leaches into groundwater, streams, etc.

Methane release

major ghg released during coal mining

Particulate matter

soot/particulates harmful to health

Reclamation

putting land back exactly how it was found before the mine

Urban runoff

water runs off rather than deep into ground to recharge aquifers carrying urban pollutants. Coastal cities- salwater intrusion into groundwater

Solutions to reduce urban runoff

Permeable pavement, city rain gardens, public transit, green roof

Maximum sustainable yield math

equals roughly half the carrying capacity of resource

Cogeneration

fuel source generates both heat and electricity.

Active and passive solar system

uses solar panels to capture sunlight and convert heat/electricity. Passive- design and build structures to absorb heat from sun without use of panels/equipment

Biomass(wood, peat)

depletable renewable. Burned for fuel. obtained through clear-cutting, low cost, ethanol(gas substitute), air pollution deforestation

Coal

burned to create steam to turn turbine to generate electricty. Obtained through mining, abundant, inexpensive, reliable. Dangerous to extract, lots of air pollution(co2 emissions). Found in US, Russia, China

Crude oil

converted into lots of products/fuels. Trapped in r0ock layers over millions of years. Drilling wells to pump out liquid oil or recover from tar sands. Widely available, cleaner than other fossil fuels. High transport costs via pipelinesm co2 emissions

Nuclear(uranium)

nuclear fission reactions(splitting atoms) generates heat to produce steam to turn a turbine to generate electricity. Canda, Aus, Kazakhstan. Obtained through mining, cleanest non renewable energy, no air pollution. Radioactive hazardous waste disposal, thermal pollution.

Solar

electricty from sunlight, everywhere but limited by sunny days. Solar panels harvest suns energy. Low environmental impact, clean energy, expensive

Hydroelectric

moving water turns turbine to generate electricity. Near running water. Dams in rivers, tidal flow from ocean. No air pollution, waste. Expensive power plants, dams can alter habitats

Geothermal

heat from earth used to make steam drive electric generator. Bets used near tectonic plate boundaries. Heat pumps deep into earth. Low environmental impact, expensive releases hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen fuel cell

use hydrogen and oxygen to create water and release energy(electricity), found anywhere. From natural gas reforming or electrolysis(splitting water). Low environmental impact, no co2 emissions. Expensive, energy needed to create hydrogen gas

Wind

moving air spins turbine to generate electricity. Anywhere usually offshore, coastal, mountains. Wind turbines harness energy, clean. Bird deaths from turning blades

Primary pollutant and secondary

Primary- emitted directly from a source into the atm. Secondary- forms in the ATM ater chemical reactions

Photochemical smog

smokey haze in the air in the afternoon in urban areas due to car pollution

Wet dry scrubbers

large air filters to remove industrial pollutants at the source

Clean Air Act

Identified 6 criteria pollutants to monitor/regulate. So2(sulfur dioxide), NOx, CO, PM, ozone(o3), Pb(lead)

How is photochemical smog formed

nox+vocs+sunlight and heat=smog

Thermal inversion

air pollution are trapped closer to the surface of earth by cool air mass

Particulate matter

solid or liquid particles suspended in air. Natural sources: sea salt, pollen, ash from forest fires, volcanoes and dust. PM10 is this, PM25 particles from combustion or smaller dust

Acid rain

NOX and SO2 are the primary pollutants that cause most acid precipitation. Form nitric and sulfuric acid as secondary pollutants.

Point source and non point

can point directly to pollutant source. Non point pollutants enter enviroment from many places.

LD50

the dose of a chemical that is lethal to 50% of a population

BOD

Biological oxygen demand