Baseball Final Exam ID's

Affluent Society/ John Kenneth Galbraith

this was a book published by John Kenneth Galbraith in 1958. It examined America’s new, post-WWII consumer economy and political culture, mentioned the unparalleled riches of American growth but also criticized the underlying structures of the economy.

argued that these trends would lead to economic inequality and private sectors would enrich themselves at the expense of the american public. These discussions are a label for postwar american society.

suburbinization

middle class dream and people moved into the suburbs and out of the cities. It exploded after WWII because homes became accessible due ti the New Deal, GI Bill, and Homeowner’s Loan Corporation.

reinforced ideas of racism as many loans for African-Americans were denied, and they were prevented from moving to the suburbs. Also led to the development of parking lots for stadiums.

Home Owners Loan Corporation

created during the New Deal by FDR, the corporation purchased and refined mortgages that were at risk of default. It would own nearly 20% of all home mortgages in the U.S

Made home ownership accessible to more people. People could accrue property wealth, and this reinforced ideas of affluent society.

GI Bill

Passed in June 1944, it provided benefits to veterans without regards to race, class, gender, or age. It helped veterans adjust to civilian life and join the middle class.

Had a lasting impact on society and has led to an increase in college degrees and helped veterans get homes.

Levittown

William Levitt established the first suburb in 1946 in Long Island NY. The houses all looked the same so they could be built on a mass scale and be affordable. This model was duplicated throughout the U.S and the suburban population doubled from 1960-1970.

Levittown was the first suburb but not the last. It led to middle-class families moving out of the cities and into suburban neighborhoods. Families got cars and television sets and reflected the new era of post-war consumerism.

Eugene Burnett

An African American who served in WWII. He was eligible for low-cost housing through the GI Bill and wanted to move to Levittown, but was told they didn’t sell to African Americans. He and many other African Americans were unable to move to the suburbs.

Highlights the contradictions of an affluent society. Burnett was denied a promise of middle class due to his race, which the GI Bill was supposed to prevent.

Redlining

In primarily African-American districts, housing costs would drift lower. These areas were outlined red on a map and banks would limit loans within these areas.

This practice segregated communities and deepened racial divisions. It contradicted the idea of affluent society and illustrated the racism engrained in America.

Walter O’Malley

Owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1950. He wanted a new stadium for the Dodgers, but was struggling to agree on a location with the city officials in Brooklyn. He was approached by officials from Los Angeles to move West.

Relocated the Dodgers to Los Angeles and helped MLB teams expand west. The departure of the Dodgers and Giants also caused Yankees to attract another national league team to New York.

Continental League

Created in 1959 by William Shea. He targets big cities with no major league teams and names Branch Rickey the president. National League is threatened by this and they agree to expand in 1960.

This led to two new teams: one in NY and one in Houston. Additionally, new stadiums that were built for these teams reflected changes in American society.

Potsdam Conference

Churchill, Stalin, and Truman threatened to take out Japan at the end of WWII. They wanted to dismantle and disarm Germany and split it into four occupations. They decided to do the same to Berlin.

highlights the battle between Cold War Capitalism and communist spheres of influence.

Fallout Shelters

How people prepared for nuclear war. There were reinforced basements with canned food and supplies to last for months in case of an atomic bomb.

These highlighted the people were so afraid of atomic threats that they extensively prepared for them.

Duck and Cover

Primarily targeted school children. It was a propaganda film that told the public that all they had to do if an atomic bomb went off was Duck and Cover.

Highlights the fear that was prevalent throughput the Cold War era and illustrates the propaganda that was pushed out during the time.

Frank Robinson

Became the first African-American manager in MLB in 1975. By 1980, was only one of three African-American managers.

Shows that the process of integration was slow and uneven.

NAACP

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. They tried to dismantle racism by going through the court system. The lawyer, Thurgood Marshall played a large part in this as he had participated in Brown v. Board, etc.

They fought segregation throughout the Civil Rights movements and encouraged more people to participate in protests.

Thurgood Marshall

A lawyer for the NAACP. He tried to dismantle racism by going through the court system. He argued several influential cases like Sweat v. Painer, McLaurin v. Oklahoma, and Brown v. Board.

Marshall ended De Jure segregation in schools and advocated for racial equality.

De Facto Segregation

is segregation not enforced by law, it is people enforcing their own practices.

This type of segregation led to the passing of Brown II, which said that schools had to be desegregated with “all deliberate speed.”

De Jure Segregation

Segregation enforced by law, it is what Thurgood Marshall was attempting to dismantle with Brown v Board, etc. Only after de Jure segregation is eliminated can De Facto segregation be targeted.

Doll Test

Conducted by the Clarks. Children were given 2 black dolls and 2 white dolls. They were asked questions about the dolls like “which doll is nicer?” and most children would answer that the white dolls were nice than the black dolls.

This test showed that segregation gave African American children a sense of inferiority. It was crucial in supporting Thurgood Marshall’s argument that separate will never be equal in the Brown v. Board case.

Mansfield Crisis

Following Brown v. Board, African Americans were encouraged to enroll in their local school instead of busing 20 miles to the colored school. They were met with angry crowds of white residents. The Texas Governer called it an orderly protest and also called in rangers to make sure the students could not enroll. The school would not integrate until 1965 after being threatened by the federal government.

This resulted in the maintenance of the status quo in Mansfield. It also represents Southern resistance to integration and sets precedent for the Little Rock 9.

Little Rock Nine

In Little Rock, Arkansas, African American students were blocked from entering a high school. The governor used the precedent’s set in Mansfield to send troops to prevent the students from entering. The mayor asked Eisenhower for help and the federal escorts the Little Rock Nine to go to school. The school was integrated for a year, but following all schools closed in Little Rock in order to prevent integration.

This was common in the South and highlights that there were little victories for African Americans but they were still facing opposition by white Americans.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Started by Rosa Parks in December 1955. The NAACP called for a one-day boycott on December 5, after her arrest. This was so successful that sothey extended the boycott. The Montgomery Improvement Association, led by MLK, pushed for first-come first-serve seating and African-American bus drivers on primarily African-American routes. 99% of African Americans in the city participated in the protests, but the city refused the MIA's demands. The organization filed a lawsuit against bus segregation, and the federal court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional on December 20, 1956.
Significance: This boycott led to the desegregation of buses and pushed MLK into the spotlight. It was a foundational protest that transformed the Civil Rights Movement and promoted non-violent protests.

Montgomery Improvement Association

Led by Martin Luther King, played a key role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott. They pushed for first-come first-serve seating, and asked for African American bus drivers on primarily African American routes. The city refused their demands, but the MIA filed a lawsuit against bus segregation and on December 20, 1956, the federal court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional.
followed the precedent that Thurgood Marshall set by going through the court system for legal change. Their role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott also led to the desegregation of buses and pushed MLK into the spotlight.

Greensboro Woolworth’s Sit-In

on February 1, 1960 4 black students sat down at a lunch counter in Greensboro, NC. They were asked to leave and refused. Opposition from white Americans grew as they gathered outside and harassed the protestors. In July 1960, the original store was integrated at the counter.

These sit-ins were extremely successful and encouraged states to desegregate and were led by student activists.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

An organization that organized young college people at the grassroots level. They come into prominence with the freedom rides and are highly involved throughout the Civil Rights Movement. The SNCC turned away from MLK's nonviolent methods in 1966. They embraced the Black Power movement and shifted towards more militant tactics.
Significance: The SNCC played a key role in promoting and organizing events like the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and Freedom Summer in 1954.

Freedom Rides

Freedom rides challenged segregation on interstate buses. On May 4, 1961, a bus leaves Washington D.C. to New Orleans. There are no problems until Rock Hill, SC. The riders start facing threats, and some are beaten. On May 14, the riders are met by a violent mob in Aniston, AL. One bus is firebombed and the other is forced to end because of racial violence.
Significance: The freedom rides garnered media attention and forced JFK to get involved. Interstate segregation is ended, but a rift in the Civil Rights Movement is created because MLK did not participate in the Freedom Rides.

Kennedy Two-Step

The term for describing John F. Kenndy's tendency to leave issues in the hands of the states so he does not have to deal with them. However, issues escalate and get so bad that he eventually pushes for change at the federal level.
Significance: This happens during the Freedom Rides and March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Kennedy didn't necessarily care about these issues he cared about being reelected.

Containment

U.S’s foreign policy during the Cold War. It was created by George Kennon in a 1946 telegram. Kennon thought there would never be long-term peace between the USSR and capitalist nations, so he believed the U.S had to do their best to contain Russia and communism as a whole.

This policy reflected the main conflict in the Cold War which is communism versus capitalism. It solidifed the U.S’s commitment to capitalism.

Ho Chi Minh

a communist who established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This only lasted 20 days before the French came in and took back their colony. He led North Vietnam against the U.S in the Vietnam War.

Symbolized communism and everything the U.S was against. The Vietnam War as a whole negatively impacted public perception about the U.S government.

Flexible Response

JFK's approach to foreign policy. It was different from Eisenhower's New Look, as Kennedy was concerned about the balance of world power. He wanted to deter all wars and he refused to be humiliated or appear weak. However, the U.S. already invested so much into the Vietnam War that Kennedy cannot back out.
Significance: The steady increase of troops sent to Vietnam proves JFK's commitment to the war by the end of 1964.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

In August 1964, the U.S.S Maddox was attacked on a surveillance patrol in Vietnam. The Maddox takes no damage, but the U.S. uses the attack to call for retaliatory airstrikes. President Lyndon B. Johnson asked Congress to do whatever he deemed necessary.
Significance: This incident leads to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. LBJ got a "blank check" to do whatever he wanted. Because of this, the U.S. never formally declares war in Vietnam, and it is all done solely on Presidential authority.

Vietnam Draft

Drafted 2.2 million men in a peacetime draft. If you were enrolled in college or a parent you could get deferment. 76% of men who served came from lower/middle class and working class backgrounds.

All of these deferments made it so the Vietnam War ended up being a working-class war. Vietnam was the first fully integrated war, was African Americans were still disproportionately drafted.

Trinity Test

Began on July 16, 1945 in the deserts of New mexico where the U.S officially denotes the first atomic bomb and is known as the threat behind the prompt and utter destruction of Japan issued at the Potsdam Conference

Marked the beginning of the atomic age and use of a new destructive power never seen before led to Japan surrendering

Fort Wayne Capeharts

Won the NBC World Series in 1950 and toured in Japan. This tour allowed for baseball and soldiers to be on the move and allow troops to move to Korea and help fight in Korean war.

example of how baseball plays a crucial role in international conflict to help aid US/UN troops. the amount of spectators speaks to baseball’s popularity overseas and how it unites nations

Medgar Evers

civil rights activist who began fighting for equal rights after returning from WWII. He tried to vote but was turned away from the ballot box at gunpoint. He used this experienced to mount a boycott against gas stations that said you not to buy gas where you can’t use the restroom. In 1954, he became the first NAACP officer in Mississippi and works to publicize the Emmett Till lynching. He was shot and killed by the KKK.

His murder showed the continuous racism in the south and how it reflects past racial biases. This also shows how the progress of the Civil Rights Movement was still slow and gradual.

Detente

Establishment of resisting and deterring Soviet expansion while getting into productive relations with the communist world, Russia and China. It was established by Richard Nixon after he is re-elected.

Is an example of achieving a peaceful coexistence with a communist world rather than trying to get rid of the USSR and communism completely. It led to formal agreements on arms control but also mass death.

George Gmelch

a minor league player for the Detroit Tigers who used the Tiger’s front office to complete his correspondence courses, online learning course in the 60’s. He did this to maintain his deferral of going to the draft for Vietnam. He was eventually called to the draft physical test and failed.

His situation showed that minor and major league players could be healthy enough for baseball but not healthy enough for the war. the Tiger’s kept all player’s draft statuses, showing that they had to balance their baseball careers with the risk of being drafted. This also goes back to deferment and avoiding the draft.

Malcom X

A civil rights figure who opposed the multi-racial nonviolent approach of King and would openly challenge King in 1963. He was assassinated in February 1965.

Malcom X leads to the Civil Rights Movement pursuing different tactics because many activists were losing hope that African Americans could propose problems and wait for change.

Freedom Summer

Summer of 1964, SNCC, CORE, NAACP and the Southern Christian Leadership conference raised awareness about the disenfranchisement of African Americans and the South. The movement of that summer had the goal of helping African Americans register to vote and teaching them to read and write.

Another example of a nonviolent push for equality. The movement was largely led by white college students from middle and upper class backgrounds which shows that the Civil Rights Movement involved people from different backgrounds across all races.

Civil Rights Act

An act put into action in 1964 that prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origins in public places and in employment. The act occurred during the middle of election season so race issues were central to the 1964 campaign.

This started the process of the South turning from the Democratic party to the Republican party. Even though the act was a positive step towards equality, voting rights were still not secure and the law did not guarantee changes.

Bloody Sunday

In Selma, Alabama, only 2% of African Americans could vote. The Selma sheriff was brutal towards Blacks so they went to Selma to make changes in 1965. State troopers used tear gas, clubs, and mounted police to chase protestors and beat them which triggered national outrage.

Bloody Sunday happened in the context of Vietnam and the Cold War and the U.S sending troops into Vietnam but not into Selma showed the priorities of the U.S in the 1960’s. This also led to LBJ submitting voting rights legislation to Congress.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Passed in 1965, outlawed the discriminatory voting practices seen in the South, including literary tests. Federal officials would accept black votes instead of local officials because local officials denied African Americans the right to vote.

This act took racial bias away from local officials. It was the most significant change in the relationship between the federal and state governments in voting since reconstruction. By the end of 1965, there were 250,000 new Black voters.

Black Panther Party

A group of African Americans associated with the Black Power Movement in Oakland, California. They confronted politicians and challenged the police by claiming economic exploitation was at the root of all oppression in the United States and across the globe. Marxist political idealogy combined with racial violence led to the suspicion of white americans and the federal government by the Black Panther party. The FBI cracked down on the party.

Was a transnational organization that reached beyond the border of the United States to participate in a global social justice movement. The classification of the party as a communist organization reflects the larger context of the Cold War and was a symbol of larger changes beyond just racial oppression.

Juan Crow

The Mexican American version of Jim Crow, that was a system of laws and customs that targeted Mexicans and Latinos in the U.S.

Juan Crow reflects broader racial bias trends seen in the U.S against other minorities.

Chicano Movement

New tactics established by Mexican Americans in California through a farmer’s union. The United Farm Workers (UFW) was a union of farm works with broad goals and support. They called for mexican americans to control their own resources and determine their own future, they also spread awareness of how Chicano history was lost in schools in the U.S

The movement inspired Chicano youth and civil rights organizations. The movement draws many similarities from the African American’s movement following racial bias trends and fighting for civil rights.

Anti-War Movement

A movement that arose when the American public began to lose faith in the Vietnam war and the people who were leading. The citizens opposed American involvement in the Vietnam war.

The movement challenged the systemic issues of the Vietnam war and the draft. The movement shows the changing of public attitude towards authority and war. The movement also united many groups that were present at this time like students and other activists.

Kent State University Shooting

The American public experienced unrest when Nixon said he would reduce troops in Vietnam, but escalated military activity in Cambodia, which led to a student protest at Kent State. On May 1, 1970, Kent State students led a successful protest, but tensions rose over the weekend, which caused the military to take over the school and ban protests. In response, thousands of students gathered to protest on May 4, and military ordered them to disperse. The students did not disperse, and the National Guard fired tear gas into the crowd and marched with rifles, pushing students onto a football field. The guards felt threatened by the protest, so they retreated back to campus, turned around, and fired their weapons at the crowd. WIthin 13 seconds, 61-67 shots were fired, which resulted in the deaths of 4 students and 9 that were wounded.

The shooting reinvigorated the anti-war movement and forced the U.S to withdraw from Vietnam more quickly to deal with violent events at home. It also shows the motivation of the younger generation to achieve peace and turn away from war.

Counterculture

a movement developed by hippies who opposed war in vietnam, opposed commercialism, and opposed the overall establishment of social norms. The movement dissaproved of racial, ethnic, and political injustices. Its also known for its participation in music, drugs, and peace.

The movement reflected the views of US citizens who did not see themselves in this type of American in the 1960s and 1970s. It reflects how the youth can amplify movements and have a much bigger impact. It also follows larger US history trends at the time like people fighting for equality.

Port Huron Statement

a manifesto for a democratic society by students in 1962. It involved pushing back against violence of the Cold War and pushing for civil rights and peace. The students realized that duck and cover and atomic age was not normal and wanted to push back against American involvement in violence and war.

Statement was an example of the youth being a powerful group to advocate for changes in America. It also reflects pushback against past violence and how the US has been treating certain groups, another push towards equality and peace.

Woodstock

disorganized music and art festival that drew crowds of more than 400,000 people and featured performances from artists like Jimi Hendrix. The festival featured anti-war messages and lots of drugs.

Large example of counterculture and the ideas of anti-discrimination and anti-war. They wanted to amplify the goals of the movement.

Sexual Revolution

a revolution that stated that government and religion should not have a place in people’s love lives. Pushed for free love and unmarried sex between adults.

Leads to increased availability of birth control. Many engage in sexual activities before marriage, going against cultural norms. Was a marker of women’s liberation movement of the same era.

Women’s Liberation Movement

movement in 60’s and 70’s that sought equal rights and opportunities for women as well as greater personal freedom in politics, work, family, and sexuality. is known as second-wave feminism and was particularly rooted in WWII when women took on new jobs in new industries.

Highly connected to WWII because after the war women did not know how to occupy their time and cultural expectations of women being at home did not change. Push for opportunities outside the home challenged traditional gender roles and expectations about women.

Betty Friedan/ The Feminine Mystique

An American feminist who expressed frustrations about women's role in American society in The Feminine Mystique in 1963. She said that women wanted more than just a husband, children, and a home because women felt unfulfilled and wanted more out of their lives. The book sold more than 3 million copies in Friedan's lifetime alone.

SIgnificance: Friedan and her writing pushed back against the idea that women could achieve fulfillment in domestic life such as doing chores and taking care of children. The number of copies sold shows that Friedan was not the only one with these opinions.

National Organization for Women

An organization created by a group of 20 women because the equal opportunities commission was not following legislation to end sex discrimination. The group was formed after women made a request to the government and the government told them that women have no authority. NOW has their first conference in October 1966, and elect Betty Friedan as their first president. In 1967, NOW wrote a bill of rights for women that had 6 measures that had laws banning discrimination, maternity leave rights, child care centers, tax deductions, equal and unsegregated education, and equal job training for poor women.

backed the equal rights amendment and demanded greater access to birth control and abortions, which reflects the expansion of second wave feminism. Their protest at the Miss America Pageant did little to change the pageant, but they gained national publicity and brought the women's liberation movement into the public eye. NOW is an example of the fight against historical gender roles that women were always stereotyped with

Title IX

new legislation on the higher education act that was passed in 1972 by Congress. It prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex with institutions receiving college funding. Colleges would have to finance sports teams and mens schools had to be open to women.

Was a crucial part of changing gender roles by making men and women equal in the sense of college athletics and education. Shows huge achievements for NOW and Women’s Liberation Movement.

Katie Feeney

pioneering female in MLB starting in the 1970’s. she had a secretarial job in the NL office and remained in that position when the NL and AL merged. She became the MLB’s senior vice president of club relations and schedule making.

Is one of the most prominent women in baseball because she showed social change in baseball. Women were filling more roles outside of typical stereotypes following the women’s liberation movement and national organization for women.

Baseball Player’s Fraternity

a union of baseball players that addressed labor issues from 1912-1918. players worked as a group and as a result could have copies of their contracts and could bargain for re-employement, severance pay, and improved working conditions. it made strides for labor rights and baseball.

it improved working conditions and set a precadent for collective bargaining. It made strides for labor rights and baseball but the owner’s ultimately regain power and leave the players to deal individually, which shows the broader history of tensions between owners and players.

American Baseball Guild

A short-lived association created by a Boston attorney named Roberty Murphy in 1946. Murphy sought to organize all teams together, having one representative from each team. Murphy wants to organize the players in Pittsburgh, but the owners are going through a sale and beg the players to not unionize because they will threaten the sale. Murphy calls for a strike vote and it fails, which marks the end of the Guild and forces owners to do something because they are fearful of a strike. As a result, the owners agree to raise the minimum salary to $5,500.

Collective bargaining is more established as a concept in baseball.
2. Players were able to secure a pension plan for all players with 4 or more years of playing time in the major leagues that they would be able to draw from at age 45.
Ultimately, the American Baseball Guild was a major victory and success, but by 1949 the pension fund is more existing as a concept than a reality. This reflects broader trends in baseball where owners have a great deal of power over players and it is difficult for players to consistently secure their rights.

Major League Baseball Players Association

Players begin to question the pension fund created through the American Baseball Guild, and they want to monitor it directly. The owners stonewall the request and say the players do not need to look at it. The players selected one representative per club, and the Major League Baseball Players Association was created in December 1953. Bob Feller was the group's first president. Frank Scott was hired in 1959 to take over operations as the executive director. Scott was a business union leader who created the central office, a place for players to register their views and opinions on policy and action. Judge Robert Cannon was the new attorney for the MLBPA who would protect pensions and give players a voice about their complaints to owners, but he was more interested in becoming the commissioner of baseball rather than being a voice for the players.

SIgnificance: The players were able to have a voice about conditions regarding money and the team, which differs from past experiences of players not being able to help pick their own contracts and having to fight through the adversity of their conditions. The MLBPA showed change in the game, making it more professional and more meaningful for the players rather than it being just a business for upper-class owners and not caring about the players. Even though the MLBPA made progress, people in positions of power in the MLB, such as Judge Robert Cannon, still did not care about the players, which shows the continuing trend of tensions between players and the front office.

Marvin Miller

Miller becomes the new executive director of the MLBPA in 1966 and turns the players' union into a labor union. He does this because he knows that the MLB is going against the Taft-Hartley Act, which was a 1947 law that governed labor relations. The formation of the labor union created an executive committee with Miller and the players. Owners do not like this and say they will not longer contribute to the player fund, but Miller is ok with this because he knows that through the Taft-Hartley Act, the MLBPA was a union defined by federal law. Miller negotiates a deal with Coca-Cola to fund the MLBPA without the owners, which brings in $60,000 and solves their cash-flow issues. Owners announce a new pension plan without the involvement of the players, but Miller tells them that they will violate federal labor laws so they cancel the plan. MLB broke the law by taking out $100,000 from the pension fund and distributing it amongst themselves. After this, owners agree to fund the pension themselves, putting in $4 million each year.

Significance: Miller is highly successful in creating a labor union that broke down the owners' control over players by securing free agency and improving conditions. Big change is seen in baseball, where rich owners no longer control the players. Miller changes the MLB to be more focused on the players, their pay, and conditions, rather than disregarding them and only caring about how they are playing.

First Collective Bargaining Agreement

Agreement proposed by Miller and his demands that was signed in February 1968. The CBA would raise the minimum salary to $10,000, improve contracts for baseball players, increase cash allowance for meals and spring training, implement new scheduling rules, and form a study committee that would investigate the length of the season and the reserve clause.

helped baseball in general by continuing to push for players' needs like good pay and a pay that they deserve, which was much different than the MLB in a broader historical context where it was all about the owners and if they could profit, not caring about players' conditions or what they were getting paid.

Catfish Hunter

was a star pitcher for the A’s. He signed a 2-year contract in 1974 with the A's that would give him $100,000 per season, but the contract said half of the salary would be put into a fund for later. Charles O'Finley, owner of the A's, fails to put the $50,000 into a security fund and as a result, the security fund rule is terminated and so is the contract. Hunter argues that since his contract was violated, he is a free agent and could go to the highest bidder of his choice. In December 1974, court proceedings ruled that Hunter was a free agent, and every team in the MLB tried to sign him except for the SF Giants. Hunter goes to the Yankees and signs a 5-year, $3.2 million contract.

Hunter's case fundamentally showed the amount of money players could make when they were not bound by the restraints of the reserve clause. Catfish Hunter showed the promise of free agency in the MLB and gave way for more players to follow in his footsteps.

Free Agency

a concept that became official when the new CBA was signed. It would recognize free agency was all players with 6+ years of MLB experience. It included players being able to sign a contract with any other club after renewing for one years after their contract.

free agency would not longer tie players to teams indefinitely and limit their salaries. Represented a change in the relationship between players and owners. Leads to the emergence of a true labor union and brings revolution to the sport.

Globalization

the process of integrating nations and peoples politically, economically, and culturally. Globalization worked to build nations and peoples into larger communities. it evolved as technologies have improved and governments have worked to deregulate markets and open border for greater flow of ideas, products and peoples

affects the american economy through spreading culture and global interconnectedness. baseball reflects it as a longer trend like foreign baseball players entering the league.

Rust Belt

in the 40’s and 50’s workers had made substantial gains but many american industries moved to the suburbs because cities began to deindustrialize. working wages decreased and businesses continued to move to anti-union states or overseas to exploit foreign workers which left the former industrial North and midwest empty.

is an example of globalization, where businesses moved around and went overseas to avoid labor unions and runs business at cheaper costs. it led to 1 million fewer union workers in 1989.

Sun Belt

anti-union states in the South and the West that businesses would move to. they would go here to exploit workers and run businesses at cheaper costs.

reflects globalization where businesses would rather move than protect their workers. Cared only about profit and not about worker’s or working conditions.

Ozzie Virgil

An MLB player from the DR who made his MLB debut on September 23, 1956, with the New York Giants. When he moves to the US, he does not make the baseball team at his high school, so he plays in a Puerto Rican neighborhood sandlot league. He joins the marines and after he serves, he comes back to the Bronx and plays sandlot ball, where he is discovered by the NY Giants. He works his way up the minor leagues and stays on the roster until 1957, but he was mainly a bench guy that got called up every few games. He was traded to the Detroit Tigers in 1958, but was concerned about this because the Tigers had not integrated yet and he had already experienced Jim Crow in the minor leagues. He integrates the Tigers on June 5, 1958, when he is called up from the minor leagues. He goes into coaching after his career, coaching for the Giants in 1968.

was the first Dominican baseball player in MLB, setting the stage for more Latin American players to follow more broadly. Shows the theme of globalization, the movement of cultures across different countries. Virgil also shows how foreign players that their home countries to go to the US for better opportunities and conditions. Virgil experienced a theme that many Latin American players would face, he was Latino, not white or black, which led him to be ignored by both whites and blacks.

Roberto Clemente

One of the best players from Latin America, specifically Puerto Rico, who makes his debut with the Pittsburgh Pirates on April 17th, 1955. Dodgers have to outbid him to sign him in 1954, after seeing him at a tryout camp in PR two years prior. Dodgers keep Clemente in the minors until he is picked up by the Pirates. In Pittsburgh, he was one of the few Latino and Black players on the team, so he had little in common with his teammates. Once more Latin American players join the team, he becomes more comfortable and outspoken about practices in baseball at the time.

was an excellent role model to his home of Puerto Rico and elsewhere. He is known for his humanitarian work, and today, the Roberto Clemente award is given each year to the player that represents service. Clemente was the first Latin American player ever elected to the Hall of Fame and the second player to have the mandatory 5 year waiting period waved, and he is elected months after his death. Clemente shows trends of globalization tied to baseball. His experience also shows that the US had racial biases towards foreign players and did not respect them as much as they did white players.

Masonori Murakami

First Japanese player to appear in the major leagues and made his first appearance pitching for the SF Giants on September 1, 1964. His time in the US was not meant to be long-term, he would go to the US for some time and then return back to Japan. The Giants invoke a clause in his contract that says they can buy the contract of the 3 Japanese players when they play in the major leagues. Murakami's home team in Japan did not like this and they protest to Commissioner, but the Commissioner threatens to end relations with Japan if they continue. He ends up not signing back with the Giants because he is homesick. He pitches around Japan and has a good career.

was an example that Japanese players could transfer from Japanese leagues to the MLB and have great success. Murakami shows the globalization of baseball players through the addition of foreign players into the MLB. Even though foreign players got this new opportunity, they were not respected and did not have a say in the changing of their contracts.

Fernando Valenzuela

Mexican baseball player who, in 6 months, burst onto the scene in LA and captured the hearts of many baseball fans across the world, which is known as Fernando Mania. He makes his first start on April 9, 1981 for the Dodgers, and became the first rookie to ever start an opening day for the Dodgers. He put up great numbers, was an All-Star, and helped the Dodgers win a World Series. Valenzuela became the first and only pitcher to win Rookie of the Year and the Cy Young Award in the same season. He only made $42,500, which was just $10,000 above the league minimum. Dodgers offer him $300,000, and he got $1 million in arbitration in 1983, which was the highest annual award given to any player.

one of the most influential Dodgers ever for his successes on the field, and made a huge cultural impact off the field regarding trends like globalization and foreign players finding success in the MLB. He was a cultural phenomenon that transformed Mexican-American and Latino communities, and accelerated MLB's outreach to international players and fans. The amount of money he made in arbitration also shows the money we can see in free agency.

Ronald Reagan

President of the US who won the 1980 election on his campaign of "making America great again" and his new political coalition, new conservatives, which combined 3 strands of conservative reactions. He intended to spend more money on defense and he promised to roll back the big government we saw in the New Deal, and return to a balanced budget in 3 years. Reagan was a man that Americans felt could regain control on foreign affairs. Reagan's strategy was to oppose the Soviet Union completely and he took anti-communism to the extreme. For example, he would challenge Societs, would not compromise on human rights, not accept parody in nuclear weapons, and would pursure and ensure American superiority.

Nature of Cold War changes when Reagan comes into office because Americans could not trust the presidency after the Watergate scandal, but they felt like they could trust Reagan. Reagan symbolizes a major break from earlier government policies and Old Cold War strategies. His actions reflect past ideas from people like Truman, such as containment, which involved not allowing communism to spread.

New Conservatives

Definition: New political coalition, that helped Ronald Reagan win the presidential election in 1980, that combined 3 strands of conservative reactions: anti-communism, libertarianism, and traditionalism. New conservatives were a united disparate group that included blue-collar workers, business leaders, Christians, and middle-class individuals.

Significance: New Conservatives challenged new progress in American society such as social change. They also opposed a big government, returning to earlier ideas in American history that involved a limited government. New Conservatives prioritized uniting people and taking a hard stance in the Cold War.

Libertarianism

is the resistance to the expanding state, which was the new government from the New Deal. Believed big government was detrimental to the US and was a pushback against new deal policies and republican presidents before reagan.

emphasized the idea of freedom from government rather than freedom through government and was another way reagan returned to earlier ideas about limited government.

Traditionalism

one of the ideas Reagan ran on. Traditionalism was a response to various social movements that had grown in the 1970s. Traditionalists wanted to return to American religious values and reject new social changes. Mainly involved two groups, Christian Evangelicals and others. The people in the others group were diverse, accused the government of granting special favors to minorities, pushed for a return to how things were before social movements surrounding around diversity and equality, and felt like their rights were being infringed. The Christian Evangelicals were mainly concerned about American morality.

Represented a huge pushback against new social movements such as the sexual revolution and counterculture. Traditionalism helped unite voters who felt that American values and norms were changing too quickly. The idea also reflects broader trends in American history, such as the Return to Normalcy.

Strategic Defense Initiative

part of Reagan’s cold war policy before 1985. Was put forth in 1983 and was a bold plan for a space computer controlled defense that would shoot down nuclear missiles before reaching a target. Many thought it wasn’t feasible and not a viable plan and would undermine the policy of mutually assured destruction.

popular with americans because it was a direct pushback against the USSR and played one the technical strengths of the US. It follows reagans coalition and themes like anti-communism. the creation of this foreign policy led to issues between the US and the USSR which led to more stalment of the Cold War.

Reagan Doctrine

a doctrine that Reagan put out that stated that it is America’s duty to spread democracy and freedom across the world. Its where Reagan goes from containing communism to attacking it directly. it follows past themes like trying to avoid a red revolution and promoting democracy instead.

Sandista National Liberation Front

a group that took over in Nicaragua in 1979. They nationalized various sectors of economy, expropriated lands and businesses from those aligned with the old regime, and overhauled Nicaraguan political life. The US does not want the Sandinistas to ally with Cuba and the USSR, so US sends them funds to prop them up and get them to align with the US. Instead, Sandinistas turned to their communist co-patriots.

Nicaragua and the Sandinistas consolidated their power and turned away from the US when the US tried to get involved with them, which shows their side was with communism. They were a direct threat to Reagan's anti-communist ideas, so Reagan cut funding and sent in contras to break down Nicaragua, which destroyed the countryside and caused lots of violence. Sandinistas used baseball to try to integrate their own society.

Mikhail Gorbachev

New leader of the USSR who comes to power in March 1985. He believed that the detente was possible and he believed that in order for the USSR to survive, global interdependence was necessary. He reaches out to Reagan to negotiate and Reagan pushes 3 ideas: 1. US was sincere in reducing nuclear arms 2. Command economy coupled with authoritarian politics was a prescription for obsolescence 3. USSR had become what it sought to overthrow

led the slow fall of the Soviet Union, which left the US as the global world power leader, which is known as the unipolar moment. He was a big part of reducing tensions with the US and ending the Cold War, choosing cooperation over conflict.

William Horton Ad

was a tactic apart of George HW Bush's campaign in the 1988 presidential election that attacked his opponent, Dukakis, instead of advocating for himself. The ad showed that Michael Dukakis allowed first-degree murderers weekend passes from prison. The ad showed an example through William Horton, a man who attacked, kidnapped, and raped when he was on a weekend pass from prison.

The ad surged George HW Bush to the top of the polls and he never gave up that position. He won 80% of the electoral college and takes over the presidency, where he would help get the US out of the long Cold War. The ad created a sense of fear that introduced a "tough on crime" era. It is considered one of the top 10 campaign ads of all time.

Gulf War

A war that was started after Suddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990. The UN passed a resolution that condemned the invasion of Kuwait and by August, US was sending troops to Saudi Arabia. The US had vital interests in the Persian Gulf and would defend them as necessary. On November 29, the UN passed an additional resolution to use all means necessary to get Saddam Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait. The Gulf War took off through operation desert storm on January 17, where the US takes action through aerial bombings because Iraq refuses to leave Kuwait.

The UN in the Gulf War showed globalization through the cooperation of the US and other countries working together for the greater good. The Gulf War showed the shift of the US war on communism to the US war on tyranny. Baseball was tied into the Gulf War because after the Gulf War ended, baseball was extra patriotic with teams offering tributes to troops and military leaders throwing first pitches at MLB games.

Saddam Hussein

Military leader who took over Iraq in a military coop in 1968. In the late 1970s, the Reagan administration worked to be closer to Saddam Hussein because US relations with Iran were destroyed. Hussein used chemical and biological weapons to fight Iran, and the US gave him $40 billion to help build these weapons. Hussein takes over Kuwait and forces American action because of Suddam's possession of 20% of the world's oil reserves.

His invasion of Kuwait led to the Gulf War. Hussein threw away a key alliance with the US. He embodied tyranny, which the US had just fought against, so we see similar themes that we saw in the Cold War of trying to take down brutal leaders.

National Security Directive 54

A directive that George HW Bush signed on January 15, 1991 that laid out US war aids. The directive had four goals: complete and unconditional withdraw of Iraq forces from Kuwait, restoration of Kuwait as a legitimate government, protection of American lives abroad, and promote security and stability of the region.

The directive was made in retaliation to the invasion of Kuwait. When Iraq did not leave after this directive was issued, the US initiated operation desert storm and the gulf war. The directive shows America's strong belief in containment and how they would do what was necessary to protect their interests from Suddam Hussein and tyranny.

Operation Desert Storm

The official start of the Gulf War led by the US and with help of UN forces. In 100 hours, US forces had liberated Kuwait and operated Southern Iraq by using aerial bombings.

Shows that US is cooperating with other countries and becoming more interconnected, which shows globalization. The operation shows US power and how it is superior over other countries by initiating these attacks and rallying other countries to help. This reflects broader themes in American history where the US would prevail and show its superiority in times of war.

Unipolar Moment

Definition: On Christmas Day 1991, Gorbachev resigns due to losing support from both sides, communists and republicans. The USSR collapses and the Soviet Union ceased to exist.

Significance: After all the violence of the Cold War, it seemed to come to a sudden and painless end. US stood as the only one left, which shows the unipolar moment, where they are the superior force on the global stage. The unipolar moment reflects earlier trends in US history where the US would have superiority over other countries after war. The unipolar moment oficially marks the end of the Cold War, a war in US history that caused a lot of constraint on the US. America's anti-communist standpoint was put on a global scale.

Kuhn Directive

In the 1970s, there were efforts to rebuild relations with Cuba, but efforts were blocked by the government. Fidel Castro blocked Cuban players from making long overseas tours to the United States. The MLB signed the Kuhn Directive in April 1977, which said that Cuban players could not sign as Cuban, but could sign from some other country. The Dodgers violated this rule by conducting secret tryouts in Cuba.

The Kuhn Directive reflects tension between the US and Cuba as the US still faces traces of communism. The directive also shows how the Cold War and politics in general affected sports. The directive also reflects past trends in MLB history when the MLB would keep certain people out on purpose, which is discriminating because they gave different rules to Cuban players and limited their opportunity based on the sole fact that they were Cuban.

Pete Ueberroth

Became the Commissioner of baseball in 1985 and created an agreement of collusion, where clubs would not outbid each other for players. The collusion kept salaries down and fundamentally violated the CBA, which allowed baragaining between the players' union and MLB. An arbitrary ruled that MLB violated the contract and the MLBPA was awarded $38 million in damages.

Ueberroth attempted to enforce lower salaries onto players, which shows that the front office of the MLB and owners still cared more about the money they were making than about their players. Ueberroth ended up resigning, which left owners unhappy about rising salaries once again. Owners and MLB wanted to combat free agency, even though free agency was successful for the sport due to drawing fans. Even though it was costing owners more, they still benefited from it.

1990 Lockout

In 1990, the CBA is set to expire and the owners lock the players out of spring training. Fay Vincent is the new commissioner of baseball, and he tells the players he is going to negotiate a new CBA that does not have a salary cap. The players agree and start the season a week late. Owners felt Vincent undermined their position and began to resent Vincent because there was no salary cap. Vincent also wanted to get rid of the designated hitter position, and owners said that he was pushing for too much. MLB had a contract with CBS for television rights that was due to expire in a few years, and Owners do not trust that Vincent will be able to close the deal and make the owners money, so the owners vote no confidence in Vincent and Vincent ends up resigning. As a result, Bud Selig, owner of the Milwaukee Brewers, replaces Vincent as interim

The 1990 lockout set the precedent for more lockouts to come in the future regarding salary disputes between the players and owners. The 1990 lockout reflects the broader trend of labor battles in the MLB where the owners had more power, not caring about the players and what they were getting. The replacement of Vincent with Selig is significant because Selig is an owner, so all decisions he makes will be in favor of the owners.

Francis Thomas “Fay” Vincent

becomes the new commissioner of baseball in 1989. He negotiates a new CBA that does not have a salary cap during the 1990 lockout. Owners resent Vincent because they felt he undermined their position. He also tries to get rid of the designated hitter, but the owners say he is pushing for too much. Owners vote no confidence in Vincent because they do not think he will be ablt to do a deal with CBS that will make the owners money. Vincent ends up resigning.

Significance: Vincent kept baseball stable during a tense labor period in MLB, and his removal highlights the power of the owners and how they were able to affect the commissioner position, reflecting broader trends we have seen with owners dominating the power in the league.

Bud Selig

Selig becomes the interim commissioner of baseball and he also owned the Milwaukee Brewers.

all decisions he would make as commissioner would side with the owners. His actions show how powerful owners were in the sport and how they controlled decisions in the MLB. His owner-sided approach led to later labor disputes like the 1994-95 MLB lockout, where they tried to affect salaries again, but the players resisted.

1994 Strike

The owners wanted to set a salary cap in the new CBA, but players refuse and strike on August 12, 1994. The owners held their position and cancel the post-season in September. The CBA expires in December, and the MLB decides without the MLBPA to create a new contract that will have a salary cap. The salary cap is so low that 75% of the teams had already exceeded it. Salaries come plummeting down and players do not accept this. The MLBPA says they will play under the terms of the expired deal until they can work out a new one. Baseball returns 3 weeks late and there is a shortened schedule in 1995.

Fans saw the 1994 strike as a fight between millionaires and billionaires. They felt betrayed by the cancelling of the World Series and they booed MLBPA director at Yankees Opening Day. Baseball suffered immensely in 1995, with 6,000 less fans at each game. MLB has to work to regain the trust of fans because without fans, they will not be able to get out of this economic crisis. The strike set the stage for the excitement of baseball to come back through the home run race. The strike highlights continued labor tensions in the sport that we have seen historically like the reserve clause, and not allowing players to advocate for what they are worth.

Jose Canseco/ Juiced

MLB player for the Oakland A’s during the time of the home run race. he wrote an autobiography called “Juiced” where he broke the code of secrecy and admitted to using steroids. He is deemed to have started the steroid crisis because he introduced them to the league in 1985 and he described how he and McGuire would inject each other with steroids.

Juiced brought PED use by players to the public which tarnished the records of the game and caused fans to be disillusioned yet again. Also reflects the broader theme of cheating in baseball history.

Sabermetrics

comes about when teams and managers begin to think about stats differently, working to create better teams. its the objective knowledge about baseball and was created by Bill James. it uses statistics and data analysis to help evaluate the sport and is used by both fans and teams.

symbolized a new era of baseball, where statistics are coming to change the game, reflects the way the game is evolving in regards to advanced analytics which led to better game and affected team decisions.

FC Lane

a biologist turned baseball magazine editor who was an early statistician at the turn of the 21st century. He wrote about the system of batting averages and created the run expected model.

he follows the new idea of sabermetrics, thinking about the game through statistics. he set the stage for sabermetrics to evolve.

Billy Beane

Player for the Oakland A’s and becomes a scout for the organization after he retires and then works his way up to become general manager. Beane began to emphasize statistics like OBP rather than RBI or batting averages and found undervalued but statistically good players. In 2000 they were the ALS champions.

he was a clear example of using sabermetrics to make his team better. This set a precedent for more teams to use statistics to be a better team overall.

War on Terror

response of the United States to 9/11. It began in Afghanistan against Al Qaeda and extended into Iraq. The goal was to eliminate terrorist threats and kill Osama Bin Laden. Baseball players would sign up to fight in this war and helped support by saluting troops and having moments of silence as well as God Bless America.

relates back to Gulf War because George W Bush continued what his father started against Saddam Hussein. shows the interconnectedness of baseball and how it reflects past trends of baseball supporting the war effort.

Carlos Delgado

MLB player from Puerto Rico who primarily played for the Toronto Blue Jays. He said the war on terror was the stupidest war ever and he decides to remain in the dugout during the singing of God Bless America. When he goes to the Yankees Stadium in July 2004, he faces a different reality. Ushers at the stadium would put up ropes so that fans could not leave during God Bless America. He only concedes to singing God Bless America when he signs with the Mets

His protest challenged the presence of militarism in baseball, which had been a long, ongoing trend we have seen in the sport, and no one had protested or gone against those norms before.

Ichiro Suzuki

Japanese baseball player who was a legend in Japan, and debuts his MLB career in 2001 at 27 years old for the Seattle Mariners. He was the first Japanese player to move from NPB to MLB. He wins rookie of the year and MVP. From 2006-2010, he would lead the MLB in hits every single season. He even won the gold glove every year for the first 10 years of his career. He retires and moves into a front office role for the Mariners. In 2019, the Mariners play the A's in Japan, and Ichiro signs a minor league contract so he can be on the roster and play. He leaves the field to a standing ovation. He announces his retirement and ends his career with the Seattle Mariners in Japan.

Ichiro left a huge legacy on the sport of baseball. His participation in the MLB reflects globalization and sets the precedent for many more foreign players to come in and have great success in the MLB. We still see this theme in baseball today and it is very prevalent through players like Shohei Ohtani.

World Baseball Classic

A series of games organized by the MLB in 2006 that played in Japan, Puerto Rico, and mainland US. The event was a small tournament so that not every nation could compete because the MLB did not want to upstage the world series. Conservatives in the US called it unpatriotic for MLB players to play for their home nations, but the MLB pushed back against this and said they wanted them to play for their home teams to equalize competition. In the inaugral WBC, the US gets knocked out in the second round by South Korea. Ichiro leads the Japanese to a victory in the championship game against Cuba, and he said it was the biggest moment of his entire baseball career.

The goal of the WBC was to promote baseball internationally, but it is also tied to economic and foreign policy. WBC is important because it is not a championship. It was purposefully designed to take place before the season began so that the MLB and the World Series remained the most superior form of baseball. WBC leads us to think about baseball as a global phenomenon.

Sign Stealing

sign stealing is the method is using eyes and hands to relay decoded signals primarily used by pitches and catchers to determine which pitch to throw. Many teams partook and some began using apple watches or cameras in center field. In 2020, the Astros were stripped of their first and second round picks because they used trash cans to steal signs.

reflects the broader trend of cheating in baseball and teams are always trying to find a way to have an upper hand in the sport.

Jen Pawol

first female umpire in the MLB. She umpires spring training in 2024, and was the first female to do so since 2007. She has been called up for only 5 games in a temporary role, even though there were 2 umpire job openings. She is still waiting for a full-time MLB position.

has made strides for women in baseball by being the first woman to ever make it to the MLB and sets a precedent that more women will hopefully follow. She is important because she is actively breaking down the barrier that baseball is only for men. She reflects older trends of women trying to get involved in the sport such as by being owners.

Maria Pepe

was the first woman to play in the Little League World Series in 1972. She was originally not allowed to play, but the National Organization for Women sued on Davis' behalf and they ruled that the institution of the Little League is as American hotdogs and applie pie and should not be withheld form girls.

The decision that girls can be in the Little League shows that the Little League is an emodiment of America and if it is an emodiment of America, it should be for girls too. Pepe starts to lay the foundation, which allows for more girls to play in the Little League in the future.