English School

Method and Character

British tradition rooted in the 1950s–60s, revived in the 1990s–2000s.

Key authors: Bull, Wight, Watson, Buzan. Traditionalist and historiographic — rejects behaviourism.

Interpretative rather than causal.

Focuses on the historical development of norms, diplomacy, and the actual conduct of states.

State-centric but not exclusively so.

International System (Bull)

A system of states is formed when two or more states have sufficient contact and impact on each other's decisions to cause them to behave as part of a whole." Characterised by power politics and anarchy. The realist baseline. Pull toward pluralism.

International Society

When states "conscious of certain common interests and values form a society, conceiving themselves bound by common rules and sharing in the working of common institutions." Anarchy exists but order is maintained through norms. The central concept of the English School. Key text: The Anarchical Society (Bull, 1977). Pull toward rationalism.

World Society (Buzan)

"Takes individuals, non-state organisations, and the global population as the focus of global identities and arrangements, and puts transcendence of the state system at the centre of IR theory." Pull toward solidarism and cosmopolitanism. Includes human rights movements, NGOs, global advocacy networks.

Bulls 5 Primary Institutions + Buzan

Deep social practices that constitute international society:

(1) Diplomacy,

(2) War,

(3) International law,

(4) Great power management,

(5) Balance of power.

Buzan added: Sovereignty/territorial integrity • Common ecological stewardship

Pluralism vs Solidarism

Pluralism (Bull): state sovereignty is paramount; international society is fragile with only minimal shared values; non-intervention is the key norm.

Solidarism: international society is thickening; cosmopolitan values and individual rights grow in importance; humanitarian intervention may be justified when states fail to protect their populations.

Wight´s 3 Traditions

Machiavellian/Hobbesian = Realism (power, anarchy, self-help).

Grotian = Rationalism (order through shared norms and law — the English School's home).

Kantian = Revolutionism (cosmopolitan values, transformation of the system).

These are ideal types — real situations combine elements of all three. A good analysis includes all three perspectives.

Emergence of International Society

Classical: 1648 Peace of Westphalia = birth of the modern state and international society.

Critical (Buzan): European international society was also a colonial empire — deeply hierarchical. Imperialism and colonialism were primary institutions, not aberrations. Non-European civilisations had long diplomatic traditions. The equation of Europe with equality is historically inaccurate.

BOP as Primary Institution (Bull)

The BOP is normative and value-laden in the English School: it is not accepted that one state becomes dominant.

Two questions: (1) Why do states want BOP? — to preserve pluralism and diversity; to reject 'universal monarchy';

(2) BOP to promote peace — organised through congresses and arms control. '

Disputed: hegemonic thinkers say dominance brings stability; liberals say BOP leads to war.

Great Power Management as Primary Institutions

Rights and Dutites

Great powers form a status group of mutually recognised peers who accept special responsibilities for maintaining international order. This creates inequality — great powers can intervene in small states and maintain spheres of influence. Intrinsic tension with state sovereignty. Secondary institutions like the UNSC give institutional form to this norm.

War as Primary Institution (Bull)

War is ambiguous: it creates disorder but can also restore order and peace. It can be used for solidarist purposes (e.g. to enforce human rights). Closely linked to BOP and great power management.

Tension between: order and justice; state sovereignty and universal human rights; the norm of non-intervention and the practice of intervention.

Jus ad Bellum

When is war justified?

(1) self-defence, and (2) authorisation by the UN Security Council. Humanitarian intervention and Responsibility to Protect (R2P) are contested emerging norms.

Historical just causes — dynastic, religious, colonial, economic expansion — are no longer accepted.

Jus in Bello

How to Wage War ?

Humanitarian law governing the conduct of war: (1) distinction between combatants and non-combatants/civilian and military targets; (2) proportionality — means must be proportionate to ends; (3) rules apply to internal conflicts (civil wars) too.

Prohibited weapons: chemical weapons, cluster bombs, anti-personnel mines, nuclear weapons. The ICC prosecutes violations at the individual level.

Behavior and Major Powers Undermining War Restrictions

NATO in Kosovo (1999) — without UNSC permission. US in Iraq (2003) — without UNSC authorisation. Russia in Ukraine — war of conquest. Western support for Israel in Gaza — described as a clear case of war crimes. Inconsistency: great powers selectively enforce norms. Result: norm erosion undermines the credibility of collective security for all states.

Buzan´s Critique of Eurocentric International Society

European international society was also a colonial empire — deeply hierarchical. A distinction was drawn between 'barbarians' and 'savages' reflecting fundamental racism.

Imperialism and colonialism were primary institutions embedded in the system. Ancient civilisations (China, Persia, Indian Ocean) had long experience with diplomacy. Grotius himself was inspired by Indian Ocean practices — yet also justified colonialism.

Critique

Too close to realism — power and great powers remain central

Lacks scientific method — no predictive laws or quantitative models

Conceptual ambiguity — how to clearly identify international society, world society,

transitions between them?

Eurocentrism — focuses too heavily on European historical experience

Conservative bias — emphasis on order encourages preservation of status quo, overlooks

revolutionary change

Primary Institutions

deep social practices that guide action (NOT formal organizations)

Secondary Institutions

Concrete Organizations