Honors World History Final

The study of how history is written, interpreted, and researched over time, rather than the study of past events themselves.

Historiography

5 C’s of Historical Thinking

Continuity/Change (what changes/stays the same), Context (Place/Time), Causality (Cause/Effect), Contingency (Major moments/what ifs), Complexity (Issues are not simple).

Artifact

Something found from a different time period made by a human.

Culture

The way a certain part of the world or a certain group of people go about doing something.

Homo-sapiens

Humans.

Paleolithic Age

The era of Stone tools.

Neolithic Age

The beginning of a settled lifestyle.

Importance of History

We study it so we don’t repeat the mistakes of the past.

Neolithic Revolution

The transition from hunter-gatherer societies to farmers.

Jared Diamond's Thesis

The argument that nothing bad (inequality, disease) would have happened if humans had stayed hunter-gatherers.

Modes of Living

Nomadic, Pastoral, and Agricultural

6 Characteristics of Civilization

Geography (fertile land/water), Specialized Workers (social hierarchy), Complex Institutions (Gov/Religion), Record Keeping (writing), Improved Technology, Large Cities.

Mesopotamia

Between Tigris and Euphrates; fertile land but little rain; flooding required irrigation; buildings made of brick; polytheistic (3,000+ deities); ended due to political upheaval.

Egypt

Nile flows South to North; agriculture appeared 6000 BCE (barley, wheat, flax); King Menes launched 1st dynasty; Priests developed writing; Pharaoh was an absolute monarch.

China

Huang He (Yellow) and Yangtze rivers; only 10% farmable (deserts/mountains); climate based on monsoons; rice was the big crop; continuing dynasties that don't really end.

Indus Valley

Modern Pakistan/India; flooded river left fertile silt; larger than Mesopotamia/Egypt; settlements on high ground to avoid floods; ended due to environmental changes. Anges and Indus Rivers.

Mandate of Heaven

Chinese belief that if bad things happened, the emperor lost divine right to rule and people could rebel (part of the Dynastic Cycle).

Minoans and Phoenicians

Dominated the Bronze Age; completed complex trade routes and systems. Lived on the island of Crete

Ancient Trade Routes

Silk Road (camels), sea routes (Europe/Asia/Middle East), Vikings (Mediterranean), and Trans-Saharan (Mediterranean to lands south of Sahara).

Hammurabi’s Code

One of the earliest/most complete written legal codes; established order through "an eye for an eye" justice; showed Mesopotamian social rules.

Christianity

2nd Abrahamic religion; Jesus is the prophet/son of God; monotheistic; Trinity; Bible.

Islam

3rd Abrahamic religion; Muhammad is the prophet; monotheistic; 5 pillars; Quran is the holy book.

Judaism

1st Abrahamic religion; Monotheistic; Torah; 10 commandments; Moses; Covenant and the promised land.

Hinduism

Varnas (castes): Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisya, Sudras, Dalit; Atman wants to merge with Brahman (Moksha); Karma is ruled by Dharma.

Buddhism

Buddha (Siddhartha) taught the Eightfold Path; goal is to reach Nirvana; focuses on mindfulness and ending suffering.

Concept of Empire

A major political unit/large state ruled by a single sovereign authority; Examples: Byzantine, Muslim, Roman, and Holy Roman Empires.

Cyrus the Great

Persian monarch who founded the Achaemenid Empire; known for being the world's first superpower and a benevolent ruler.

Darius

The 3rd king in the Achaemenid Empire. Built the Royal Road.

Satrap

A provincial governor in the Persian Empire who reported to the Emperor and protected the land.

The Royal Road

Persian (Achaemenid) system of stops/relays that made travel and communication for messengers faster and more efficient. Built by Darius the first.

Persian Power

Dominated through efficient/decentralized administration, cultural tolerance, and a massive highly trained military.

Greek Origins

Influenced by Minoans (Crete) and Mycenaeans; established foundations of art, religion, and trade in the Aegean.

Homer and Dorian Culture

Homer wrote the Iliad (glorified/heroic view of Greece); Dorian migration/invasion happened after the Trojan War.

Greek City-States

Organized this way because the geography of Greece was so diverse, mountainous, and widespread.

Persian Wars

Significance: The Greeks successfully defeated the much larger and more powerful Persian armies.

Direct Democracy Problems

In ancient Athens, it led to instability, "mob rule" (emotional decisions), and the exclusion of minorities (the 49% had no say).

Peloponnesian War

Conflict between Athens (Delian League) and Sparta (Peloponnesian League); Sparta won and ended the Golden Age of Greece.

Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

Philosophers who challenged views of the world; often prosecuted for their opinions.

Alexander the Great

Conquered Persia, Egypt, and parts of India by age 30; legacy is the Hellenistic Age (spread of Greek culture/language). Brought the Greeks to India

Hellenistic Culture

A blend of Roman and Greek styles and ideas that spread during/after Alexander's conquests.

Alexandria

The premier intellectual, commercial, and cultural capital of the Hellenistic world.

Han Dynasty Impact

Solidified Chinese identity; established Confucianism; pioneered the Silk Road; invented paper.

Civil Service Exams

Han system to select government officials based on their knowledge of Confucianism rather than their birthright.

Fall of the Han

Caused by political corruption, peasant uprisings, and regional warlords; central authority fractured in 220 CE.

Origins of Rome

Combination of defensible geography, Latin agriculture, and cultural influence from Etruscans and Greeks.

Patricians vs. Plebeians

Patricians: wealthy land-owning nobles; Plebeians: the common majority who fought for a political voice.

Roman Republic Leaders

Governed by elected officials; two Consuls held supreme command.

Punic Wars

Conflict between Rome and Carthage; Rome won, destroyed Carthage, and took control of the Mediterranean.

End of Roman Republic

Shifted to Empire (c. 27 BCE) due to political collapse, civil wars, and the rise of dictators like Julius Caesar.

Triumvirates

1st: Caesar, Pompey, Crassus; 2nd: Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony, Lepidus.

Augustus Caesar

First Roman Emperor; led Rome into the Pax Romana (Golden Age).

Christianity in Rome

Initially hated/persecuted, but slowly adopted by emperors (like Constantine), eventually becoming the dominant religion.

Constantine

First Roman emperor to convert to/legalize Christianity (on his deathbed).

Fall of Rome

Reasons include Germanic invasions, internal political affairs, and the impact of Christianity.

Greco-Roman Culture

Forms the foundational "bedrock" of Western civilization.

Byzantine Empire

A Christian empire centered in Constantinople; a major power in the Mediterranean.

Justinian

Byzantine Emperor who built the Hagia Sophia and initiated important legal/territorial expansions. Brought together experts to examine old laws

Hagia Sophia

Architectural wonder with a dome on a square base; symbolized the state (square) and the church (dome/circle).

East vs. West Church

Roman Catholic (Pope) vs. Eastern Orthodoxy (Patriarchs).

The Great Schism Events

Destruction of icons, Pope crowning Charlemagne instead of Empress Irene, and mutual excommunications.

Paul the Apostle

Crucial figure who spread the teachings of Jesus.

Clergy vs. Laity

Clergy: Members of the church hierarchy; Laity: Everyday regular people.

Diocletian

Emperor who split the Roman Empire into two halves and persecuted Christians.

Monasticism

A religious way of life characterized by giving up worldly pursuits to focus on faith.

Battle of Tours

Conflict where the Franks (led by Charles Martel) stopped the Umayyad army's advance into Europe.

Charlemagne

"Father of Europe"; laid the foundation for feudalism and unified much of the West.

Germanic vs. Roman Culture

Germanic: Focused on family values and the "best warrior"; Roman: Focused on centralized war/state violence.

Muhammad

The prophet and founder of Islam; received messages from Allah through Angel Gabriel.

The 5 Pillars (Details)

Faith (one god), Prayer (5x daily), Alms (charity), Fasting (Ramadan), Hajj (Mecca pilgrimage).

Sunni vs. Shia Split

Shia believe leaders must be related to Muhammad; Sunni believe they should follow his teachings/actions.

Umayyads and Abbasids

Umayyads: Great territorial expansion; Abbasids: Focused on Baghdad and the Islamic Golden Age.

Islamic Expansion

Reached from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain) in the West to the Indus Valley and China in the East.

House of Wisdom

Intellectual center in Baghdad where scholarship from Greece, Persia, and India was preserved and expanded.

Islamic Art/Science

Used calligraphy and arabesques (avoiding human/animal forms to not copy Allah); pioneered math and medicine.

Sui, Tang, and Song Dynasties

Sui: Reunited China; Tang: Cosmopolitan Golden Age; Song: Tech/Commercial achievement.

Civil Service (Dynasties)

Han started it; Tang standardized it; Song perfected it as a fair path to power.

The Mongols

Nomadic peoples from Northern China/Mongolia area.

Genghis Khan

Big leader who began the Mongol conquests and started the Khan legacy.

4 Mongol Khanates

Yuan Dynasty (China), Golden Horde (Russia), Ilkhanate (Persia), Chagatai (Central Asia).

Kublai Khan

Genghis’s grandson; founded the Yuan Dynasty in China; the empire eventually grew too big to manage.

The Dark Ages

Specifically a European period of instability/lack of education; other regions (Muslim world) were in Golden Ages.

Middle Ages Periods

Early (Dark Ages/Feudalism), High (Stability/Crusades/Universities), Late (Plague/Schism/Renaissance).

Origins of Feudalism

Muslim, Magyar, and Viking invasions caused people to turn to local lords for protection.

Feudal Pyramid

Serfs/Peasants (labor), Knights/Merchants (protection/wealth), Nobles (owned land), King (top authority).

Chivalry and Tournaments

Chivalry was a knight's code of honor; Tournaments were social events where knights displayed skill and ideas mixed.

Church vs. State

Conflict over who had ultimate power; the Church had its own hierarchy above the feudal system.

7 Sacraments

Baptism, Confirmation, Reconciliation, Eucharist, Matrimony, Holy Orders, Anointing the Sick.

Cathedrals

Gothic: Pointed arches, stained glass, very tall; Romanesque: Rounded arches, heavy roofs, small windows.

The Crusades

Rallied by the Pope to take the Holy Land from Muslims; largely unsuccessful; caused long-lasting regional conflict.

End of Middle Ages

The Great Schism, Hundred Years' War, and Black Plague led to the downfall of feudalism.

African Geography

40% Desert (Sahara), 40% Savanna (Grassy plains), 10% Welcoming lands, plus rainforests.

Bantu-Speaking Peoples

Migrated across sub-Saharan Africa, spreading agriculture, iron-working, and their language base.

Trans-Saharan Staples

Mainly Gold and Salt, moved via camel caravans.

Ghana, Mali, Songhai

Ghana: 1st trading state; Mali: Absorbed Ghana (Mansa Musa); Songhai: Largest African empire (Sunni Ali).

Great Zimbabwe

Massive stone structures built by indigenous African peoples; a source of historical dispute.

Native American Tribes

Diverse groups across North America sharing similar religious views (Great Spirit).

Maya, Aztec, Inca

Advanced American civilizations with monumental architecture, hierarchies, and polytheistic religions.

Hellenistic Culture is…

A mix of Persian, Greek, Indian, and Egyptain culture that orginated because of Alexander the Great.

Moksha

What Hinduism aims to achieve it is the merging of an individual soul with that of the world soul and normally takes multiple lives to achieve.

Nirvana

Nirvana is similar to the Hindu concept of Moksha and it is where one reaches full enlightenment through following the 8-fold path.