AP Psychology Unit 9: Social Psychology

Affective Component

emotional feelings

Prejudice

a preconceived judgment or emotional feeling directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group

Behavioral Component

predisposition to act (or not to act) in certain ways

Discrimination

the unjust treatment towards a person based on a particular group to which they belong

Cognitive Component

beliefs

Stereotypes

an overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people

Explicit Attitudes

attitudes that we hold consciously and can readily describe

Implicit Attitudes

covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle, automatic responses that people have little conscious control over

Reference Groups

a group that we compare ourselves to when evaluating our behaviors

Relative Deprivation

perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource he/she has is less than in comparison to people in their reference group; leads to feelings of inferiority or entitlement

Downward Social Comparison

when people compare themselves to those who are less proficient than they are to make themselves feel better

Upward Social Comparison

when people compare themselves to those who are more proficient than they are

Spotlight Effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

False Consensus Effect

overestimating how much other people share our beliefs and behaviors

Halo Effect

when a general positive impression of a person in one area influences the impression of that person in other areas

Illusory Correlations

when people estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually seen(think there is a correlation but there isnt)

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

the tendency to view an outgroup as homogeneous, or as all the same, whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

our beliefs lead us to act in ways that fulfill our expectations( you try to confirm and do what you expect)

Ethnocentrism

tendency to view one's own culture as superior and apply one's own cultural values when judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures

Ingroup Bias

tendency for humans to be more helpful and positive towards members of their own group over members of an outgroup

Outgroup Bias

negative categorizations of our feelings toward people who are not our ingroup

Effects of Categorization

can lead to prejudice & discrimination

Cognitive Dissonance

mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values; or when our affect, behavior, and/or cognitions aren't congruent; this dissonance drives us to change either one of our beliefs and/or our behavior so that they realign

Persuasion

a process where a person, brand, or other factors influence another person's behavior or attitudes

Central Route to Persuasion

when attitudes are formed or changed as a result of carefully scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information(logical)

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

when persuasion depends on non-message factors, such as the attractiveness and credibility of the source, or on conditioned emotional responses (ex: the halo effect)(emotions)

Compliance

changing behavior in response to a request

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

getting a person to agree to a large request by first getting them to agree to a smaller request

Door-in-the-Face Technique

making a large request of someone, that they will most likely turn down, so they are more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request

Norm of Reciprocity

the "rule" that we should pay back what we receive from others

Contact Hypothesis

the idea that bringing people together who are in a conflict will help the conflict to subside as they get to know and understand each other

Superordinate Goals

tasks that get people from opposing sides to come together and work toward a common goal/end result

Attributions

inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior, and their own behavior

Internal Attributions

believe the causes of behavior are due to dispositonal factors (internal traits)

External Attributions

believe the causes of behavior are due to situational demands and environmental constraints (external factors)

Actor-Observer Bias

the tendency to blame our own actions on the situation (external attribution), while blaming other people's actions on their personality (internal attribution) when it comes to negative events

Fundamental Attribution Error

a cognitive bias where people overemphasize personal traits (dispositional factors/internal attribution) and underestimate situational factors when judging others' behaviors. (you assume something is there fault, not something out of there control)

Self-Serving Bias

the cognitive tendency to attribute positive events and successes to internal, personal factors (skill, hard work), while blaming external, situational factors for failures or negative outcomes

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger and other negative emotions by providing someone (or a group) to blame that is usually not at fault

Defensive Attribution & Just-World Hypothesis

tendency to blame victims for their misfortune so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way

Social Loafing

exerting less effort when working on a task when in groups than when working alone

Social Facilitation

presence of others improves one's performance

Social Impairment

presence of others hinders one's performance

Group Polarization

tendency for groups to make more extreme decisions than the initial inclinaton of each individual member

Groupthink

when desire for harmony or conformity within a group leads to dysfunctional or irrational decision-making

Social Roles

a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group

The Stanford Prison Experiment

-lasted 6 out of 14 days

-supports the influence of social roles & power of the situation

Social Trap (Cooperation vs. Competition)

a situation in which an individual profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the selfish alternative, in which case the whole group loses

Altruism

actions that are motivated by a desire to help others, without expecting any reward

Social Responsibility Norm

a societal expectation that individuals should assist those in need

Bystander Effect

people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone; this effect is influenced by various situational and attentional variables

Situational Variables

-the number of bystanders

-the perceived severity of the situation

-the relationship between the bystanders and the victim

-proximity to the victim

-the location of the situation

**all impact whether someone decides to help or not

Attention Variables

-how much focus a bystander has on the situation; if a person is distracted or preoccupied with their own thoughts or activities, they may not notice that someone needs help

-if the situation is ambiguous, bystanders may hesitate to act because they're unsure if help is needed

Diffusion of Responsibility

when others are present, a person is less likely to feel the obligation to take responsibility

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness/personal identity when in groups due to perceived lack of accountability

Conformity

when people change their behavior due to real or imagined social pressure

Social Norms

the perceived informal, mostly unwritten, rules that define acceptable and appropriate actions within a given group or community, thus guiding human behavior

Asch's Conformity Study

-asked which line matches original line

-each announces choice to group; all but one is an accomplice of the experimenter

-accomplices give incorrect answers during multiple trials

-75% conformed at least once

Factors That Influence Conformity

-group size

-unanimity

-cohesion

-cultural differences

Group Size

conformity increases with group size but only up to a certain point (about 4-5 people)

Unanimity

individuals are more likely to conform when everyone in the group agrees; however, if just one person disagrees conformity tends to decrease

Cohesion

the stronger the emotional bonds among the group members, the more likely they are to conform to each other

Cultural Differences

conformity is often higher in collectivist cultures where group harmony is valued over individualism

Normative Influence

when people conform to social norms in a group for fear of negative social consequences (or the desire to fit in/be accepted)

Informational Influence

when you conform to a griup in ambiguous situations (because you are unsure what to do); you look to the behaviors of others to see how they behave because you assume they know something you don't

Obedience

form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a real or imagined position of authority

Milgram's Shock Experiment

-no shocks were actually given

-participants were told that the study was about impact of punishment on learning

-shock generator set up with descriptions for voltage

-script for "leaner" to express distress

-findings: of 40 participants only 5 quit at 300V; only 14 participants defied the experimenter before the full series of shocks was completed; 65% gave all 30 levels of shock

Ethical Concerns

deception, severe stress, coercion (did the participants believe their participation was voluntary?), knowledge that capable of harm to innocent victim; Milgram felt it was ethical due to debriefing

Mere Exposure Effect

the finding that repeated exposures to a stimulus promotes greater liking of the stimulus

The Matching Hypothesis

people of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners

Similarity

we tend to be attracted to those who have common interests and beliefs

Proximity

tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relationships with those who are close by

Intimacy

friendship

Passion

sexual attraction

Commitment

psychological loyalty

Consummate Love

intimiacy + passion + commitment

Romantic Love

intimacy + passion (no commitment)

Companionate Love

intimacy + commitment (no passion)

Culture and Close Relationships **NOT ON TEST

-romantic love is not found in all cultures

-individualism: marriage for passionate love

-collectivism: arranged marriages

An Evolutionary Perspective on Relationships **NOT ON TEST

-physical attraction = influential determinant of attraction

-men seek youthfulness and physical attractiveness (to pass on their genes)

-women seek ambition, social status, and financial potential (for protection)

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