psychological science & personality theory, personality assessment, psychoanalytic theory, attachment theory, humanistic theory

personality

psychological systems that contribute to an individual’s enduring and distinctive patterns of experience and behaviour

personality disposition - enduring

somewhat consistent across contexts and time

personality disposition - distinctive

unique / different / distinct to me / not universal

goals of personality research: to understand…

• structure

• growth and development

• personality process

• psychopathology and behaviour change

main goals for personality theorist

1. scientific observation

2. scientific theory

3. observation and theory → application/practice

main goals for personality theorist: CATSS

1. theory that is Comprehensive

2. Application: from theory to practice

3. theory that is Testable

4. theory that is Systematic

5. observation that is Scientific

toolkit theory

theories are like toolkits - include concepts, research methods, techniques for assessing personality, therapy

three major methods used in personality research

1. case studies

2. correlational studies

3. experimental studies

case studies strengths/weaknesses

strength: allow for in-depth study of individuals in their setting/context

weakness: subjective (therapist’s beliefs may inadvertently bias presentation of case study); do not establish causal relationships

correlational studies strengths/weaknesses

strength: study relationships between many variables; large samples easily obtained

weakness: problems with reliability and validity of self-report questionnaires; do not establish causal relationships

experimental studies strengths/weaknesses

strength: can establish cause-effect relationships

weakness: lab-based (are findings generalisable to the real world?)

cross-sectional studies

• different people measured at same time

• groups differ by age, cohort, condition

• fast and low cost - single data collection

• cannot distinguish aging from cohort effects

• no tracking of individual change over time

longitudinal studies

• same people measured repeatedly over time

• tracks individual change across lifespan

• time-intensive - months, years, decades

• avoids cohort confounds, reveals true development

• risk of attrition (participant dropout over time)

LOTS of data

L-data = info that can be obtained from person’s life history/records

O-data = info provided by knowledgable observers such as parents, friends, teachers

T-data = info obtained from experimental procedures or standardised tasks

S-data = info provided by subject, typically in form of responses to questionnaires

Dunedin study

• 862 participants, 93% Pākehā

• longitudinal research design

• temperament rated at 3 years by interviewers at end of home visit

• personality assessed at 18 years with multidimensional personality questionnaire

Dunedin study key longitudinal findings

under-controlled → high impulsivity, danger seeking, negative emotionality

inhibited → restrained behaviour, safe, non-assertive, submissive

confident → high impulsivity

reserved → low social potency

well-adjusted → ‘normative behaviours’

critical reflexivity

having opinions, responses, reactions, biases, questions. consider where these may come from, how they might be different, how they impact my behaviour

purpose of personality assessment

yield basic data to help inform different goals. can be used to predict people’s behaviour and tested using experimental research or as applied tools

what psychometrics assess

• average behaviour / tendencies

• variability in behaviour

• conscious thought - thoughts, feelings, emotions

• unconscious mental events

reliability

• replicability - are measures consistent over time?

• impacts on reliability - a person’s mood/context, misunderstanding question

• internal consistency - do different items on a test correlate with one another?

• test-retest reliability - if people take the test twice, will they get similar results?

validity

• accuracy - do observations reflect phenomena of interest?

• measure considered valid if it captures intended measurement

• construct validity - measure needs to relate to specific phenomenon

• discriminant validity - measure should not correlate highly with measures of different things

problem with self-report

inaccuracy with what people say about themselves

• self-report bias, deliberate distortion of response

• not always consciously aware of why they made a choice

types of bias

• acquiescence bias - tendency to agree/disagree consistently with items regardless of content

• social desirability bias - responding based on desirable responses

likert scales

specify level of agreement or disagreement for series of statements/items, answers capture intensity of feeling for item

ethics of personality assessment

• a tool, not a definitive source of info about person

• psychologists must hold high standards of accuracy and fairness, tests have ability to impact person’s life

• factors influence performance on psychometrics

what psychometrics don’t capture

• not representative of human life

• does not answer crucial questions of human existence

• influence of culture, situational context, age/gender, developmental period, life experiences

Freud’s topographical model

the conscious: that which we know

the preconscious: that which we can bring to mind

the unconscious: that which we do not know → unacceptable memories/feelings, influence us without awareness, dominated by ‘primary process thinking’

how Freud’s topographical model works

• model of ‘energy’ flowing through psyche

• powerful energy associated with primitive impulses in unconscious seeks release into consciousness

• energy held back by repression

• energy ‘leaks’ into consciousness

evidence for active unconscious

• subliminal perception impacts behaviour - showing pictures of spiders below level of awareness reduced fear of spiders

• subliminal messages designed to activate unconscious conflict impacts behaviour - women ate more crackers after seeing picture of crying baby

Freud’s structural model

id: primitive drives, operates according to ‘pleasure principle’, dominates in childhood and is repressed later

superego: develops last and helps negotiate moral demands of society, operates according to ‘morality principle’, internalised demands result in high standards / self-criticism

ego: mediates between other parts of mind and external world, operates according to ‘reality principle’ trying to balance impulses of id and superego

key concept of conflict

ego defences

• repression: blocks internal memories/emotions

• denial: avoids anxiety by refusing to acknowledge reality

• projection: attributes unacceptable feelings to others

• displacement: directs impulses toward target

• isolation: disconnects idea from feelings associated with it

• reaction formation: acts in opposite way of impulse they are afraid to acknowledge

• undoing: attempt to repair/counter previous destructive actions

• intellectualisation: overly rational response aimed at distancing

• sublimation: expresses unacceptable wishes in socially acceptable ways e.g. art

importance of mind structure for personality

• personality partly determined by unconscious factors

• different aspects of personality operating in conflict with one another

• personality is product of ego’s attempt to manage conflict through characteristic defences

• structures and processes are common, but particular way they play out shapes individual personality

Freud’s stage theory of development

• experiences of world shaped by developmental stage

• the way in which each stage is negotiated leaves trace in personality

• multiple strands of personality left by different stages

Freud’s developmental stages

• oral (0-18m): pleasure centres on mouth - sucking, biting, chewing

• anal (18-36m): pleasure centres on bowel/bladder elimination, coping with demands for control

• phallic (3-6y): pleasure centres on genitals, coping with incestuous sexual feelings

• latency (6-puberty): dormant sexual feelings, identification process

• genital (puberty-): maturation of sexual interests

Oedipus complex

• based on myth of Oedipus

• boy wants mother to himself, competition with father, experiences ‘castration anxiety’, accepts power of father, internalises father and takes other women as love object

• girl wants mother, imagines she has penis, recognises she nor mother have penis, experiences ‘penis envy’, gives up mother as love object and turns to father, identifies powerlessness of mother

fixation and regression as basis of personality

• oral: demanding, needy, mistrustful

• anal: need for control and fear of loss of control

• phallic: (male) exhibitionist, competitive, success. (female) exhibitionist, seductive, flirtatious

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

• infancy: trust vs mistrust, physical/emotional needs met

• early childhood: autonomy vs shame, exploration

• preschool age: initiative vs guilt, make decisions

• school age: industry vs inferiority, gender-role identity

• adolescence: identity vs role confusion, goals, life meaning

• young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation, form intimate relationships

• middle age: generativity vs stagnation, help next generation

• later life: integrity vs despair, no regrets and personal worth

what psychoanalysts contribute to understanding of personality

• personalities are complex and contradictory

• personalities are mysterious to ourselves and not entirely under conscious control

• personalities are shaped by past (relationships), unconscious conflicts, how we protect ourselves

• personalities are less about ‘rational’ choices and more about irrational feelings

• ‘real’ motivations are often unknown to us and sometimes operate against conscious interests

psychoanalysis in contemporary theorising

• shift from notion of ‘instincts’ towards unacceptable wishes and uncomfortable memories

• focus more on past relationships shaping personality

• examination of present relationships as reflection of past relationships

• reinterpretation of psychoanalysis through social/feminist lens

research methods in psychoanalysis

• case studies

• randomised control trials

• experimental studies

• neurological observations and studies

psychoanalysis strengths

• deeper understanding of personality

• matches intuitive understanding of self

• research evidence

• starting point for other personality theories

psychoanalysis weaknesses

• early reliance of case study method - questions of generalisability

• theory untestable - concepts too abstract

• theory unfalsifiable

• complex and difficult to understand

John Bowlby attachment theory

• humans primed for attachment, instinctive imprinting

• critical period for attachment - up to 5 years

• disruptions in this period haven lasting impacts on emotion, cognition, behaviour

• different attachment experiences lead to ‘internal working models’ of relationships that persist into adulthood

Bowlby’s stages of separation

• protest

• despair

• detachment

maternal deprivation hypothesis

warm, intimate, continuous relationship with mother figure is necessary for healthy psychological/emotional development. drew attention to risks of institutional care, hospitalisation practices, inadequate care situations

criticism of maternal deprivation hypothesis

• used to entrench gender roles and constrain women’s freedom

• should focus on quality of attachment rather than just separation of mother

• recognition of resilience of children in face of adversity

• focus on “good enough mother”

the Strange Situation (Mary Ainsworth)

1. parent and infant settle in room

2. stranger enters

3. parent leaves

4. stranger stays

5. 1st reunion (parent returns)

6. parent leaves again

7. stranger returns

8. 2nd reunion (parent returns)

Ainsworth attachment styles

secure attachment (70%): infant distressed but easily comforted on return

dismissive-avoidant insecure attachment (20%): infant not distressed and showed little need for comfort on return

resistant insecure attachment (10%): infant distressed and unable to be comforted on return

disorganised attachment: contradictory and disorganised behaviour e.g. calling for mother then pushing her away

secure attachment

parent: sensitive, timely, responsive, allows exploration

child: better emotion regulation, better social relationships, more persistent in challenges, more resilient to stress

avoidant attachment

parent: difficulty responding to child’s emotional needs

child: learns to ‘shut down’ emotional needs, turns away from intimacy during stress

resistant attachment

parent: unpredictable, unreliable, mis-attuned

child: struggle with separation, has to ‘turn up’ signals to get emotional needs met, want help from parent but can be oppositional and angry

disorganised attachment

parent: paradox, source of fear and only source of potential comfort

child: no organised system will work, emotion dysregulation, dissociative experiences, associated with trauma/abuse

shifts in attachment research

• recognition of caregivers rather than mothers

• inclusion of other relationships e.g. fathers, peers

• move from focus on only children to recognition of adult attachment patterns

• studies exploring continuity or change in attachment patterns

adult attachment (Mary Main)

• developed adult attachment interview

• example prompt: 5 adjectives to describe mother/father

• identified overall attachment style rather than attachment to particular person

• styles: secure-autonomous, dismissing, anxiously preoccupied

attachment theory strengths

• draws attention to importance of relationships

• methods allow for empirical examination of core psychoanalytic ideas

• ensure appropriate resourcing of early relationships

attachment theory weaknesses

• reinforces gender sterotypes

• places too much emphasis on individual rather than collective relationships

• neglects significance of broader social context e.g. poverty

• issues re continuity vs discontinuity

• reifying and biologising of attachment

humanism

• inherent potential for positive growth

• holistic understanding of person

• valuing capacity to reason

• each individual is unique

• capacity for human agency

• construct own meaning

• respect for others

• challenge to hierarchical power arrangements

• politics of human rights, democracy, social justice

Rogers’ person-centred approach