CRCJ 1000 - Intro to Criminology - Midterm

Chapters 1-4, Lectures 1-5

Criminology’s scientific goal is:

to develop a body of verified principles and knowledge regarding law, crime, and treatment

How was crime treated historically?

As a private matter to be dealt with by the involved parties

The objectivist-legalist approach to crime believes that laws reflect:

a consensus of shared societal customs and beliefs, applied equally to all

The goal of criminology through an objectivist-legalist lens is:

To determine the causes of criminal behaviour based on biological, psychological, and sociological theories

In Canada, administrative law governs:

the relationships between individuals and the state, resolved with a warning or fine

In Canada, civil law governs:

arrangements between individuals, resolved with compensation or another dispute resolution plan

The 3 categories of Canadian Criminal Code violations are:1

1. Crimes against the person

2. Property crime

3. Public order crimes/victimless crimes

What is the difference between actus reus and mens rea?

Actus reus refers to having committed an act, while mens rea refers to having the intention to cause harm through the act.

In Canada, who is considered not to posses mens rea and therefore not be able to convicted of a crime?

Children and the insane

2 main types of criminal offences in Canada:

Summary offenses and indictable offenses

Why do only a fraction of offenses end up in court?

Plea bargaining occurs - a negotiation between the accused/their counsel and the Crown

Who developed labelling theory, and when?

Howard Becker in the 1960s

Why did Becker and other labelling theorists question the objectist-legalist approach?

They thought the definition of crime needed to be broader, and that there was no societal consensus on what constitutes deviant behaviour.

The fundamentals of labelling theory state that:

No act is inherently criminal, the label of deviance is a social reaction to the deviance itself - society decides what makes an act illegal

What does the statement “crime is relative” imply?

Since crime is defined by society, rules and laws can change with social context and historical/geographic differences.

What did the Ontario Safe Streets Act of 2000 criminalize, and why was it criticized?

It criminalized ‘aggressive’ panhandling and squeegee cleaning of windshields. It has been criticized for discriminating against the poor and criminalizing unhoused people.

What are three main depictions of criminality in the media?

1. Risk and violence are very common

2. Sympathetic portrayal of victims

3. Victims let down by leniency of justice system

What is a moral panic, and who coined the term?

Coined by Stanley Cohen, is an exaggeration of the impact of a perceived issue due to media and social factors

What is the 5-stage trajectory of a moral panic?

1. Threat is defined

2. Nature stylized, stereotyped by media

3. ‘Experts’ state solutions

4. Condition becomes more visible due to attention

   1. Passes or remains long-term

How is the crime rate of an area calculated?

Number of crimes / Population *100,000

Based on police-reported data only

What percentage of all crime is reported in Canada

30%

What are 5 factors affecting crime rate?

1. report-sensitive crimes

2. policing-sensitive crimes

3. court administration changes

4. definition-sensitive crimes

5. media-sensitive crimes

What does the crime funnel model tell us about the criminal justice system?

People ‘escape’ the system at each step of the process due to lack of reporting, discretion, plea deals, etc.

Where is data from a UCR sourced, and what is it used for?

Comes directly from police, used to inform policy and resource allocation at government level

What are the limitations of UCR data?

Agencies may record data differently, may downplay incidents or outright manipulate data

How are victimization surveys conducted?

A representative sample of Canadians is asked if they’ve been victimized by a crime recently

What do victimization surveys tell us?

• The dark figure of crime

• Reasons for not reporting: fear

• Reasons for reporting: financial loss

• Trends in what crimes are reported, what victims report, what criminals are caught

Limitations of victimization surveys

Not all crimes are reported (i.e. murder), data reliability is based on personal accounts

How are self-report surveys conducted?

Large groups of people (inmates, students) are asked to voluntarily disclose any offences they’ve committed.

What are the benefits of self-report surveys?

Records dark figure of crime, informs us of motivations for offending

Limitations of self-report surveys

Relies on subjects’ memory and willingness to admit, captures more non-serious than serious offences

What is the benefit of participant observation?

Collect information on marginalized groups, even lawmakers/police, gives rich and descriptive data with high validity

Limitations of participant observation accounts

• Can’t infer larger scale dynamics

• May be dangerous, time consuming

What is the goal of biological and psychological theories of crime?

To identify differences between criminals and non-criminals, and ultimately predict, control, and intervene in criminal behaviour.

Views of criminality in the middle ages

Criminal behaviour was caused by witches, demons, possession - led to brutal punishments

What are the foundational ideas of classical criminology? Who came up with them?

Cesare Beccaria - People have free will and choose to commit crime

Punishment can be used to deter crime; should be swift, certain, sure

How does classical theory define crime in terms of the state?

Individuals enter into a contract w/ the state, giving up some freedom for benefits in society. Citizens who do not obey rules face punishment.

What 5 legal reforms were made based on the philosophies of classical criminology?

1. equality before the law

2. guarantee of one’s rights

3. establishment of fixed penalties

4. due process safeguards

5. separation of judicial & legal systems

limitations of classical criminological theory

Only valid when resources are evenly distributed, doesn’t consider mitigating circumstances, question of children/the insane having free will

What was the goal of the Neo-classical school of criminology?

Sought increased flexibility in the justice system, with individualized sentences based on offender characteristics, mitigating circumstances, motive

What was the methodology of the Positivist school of criminology?

They used the scientific method to study external forces they believed caused criminal behaviour.

What did Cesare Lombroso conclude about criminality?

He thought criminals (atavists) were less evolved than others, and had biological characteristics that predisposed them to crime. He believed these people should be imprisoned, while crimes committed by elites were mostly forgiven.

What is the impact of the MAO-A gene on criminality?

Those with a deficiency in the gene and a history of childhood abuse are highly likely to be violent as adults.

What is the definition of neuroplasticity?

The brain’s structure and function are malleable - after a trauma, other parts of the brain can take over any functions that were lost.

What do biological studies tell us about criminality?

There is no direct biological cause of criminal behaviour. Some genetic predispositions can be protected or aggravated by the environment.

What did Freud believe about deviance?

That it stems from unresolved psychological conflicts between ego, superego, and id.

What is the idea behind Social Learning Theory? Who developed it?

Albert Bandura believed aggression was learned through familial, subcultural, and media influences.

What are 4 factors producing violence, according to social learning theory?

1. provocation (verbal/physical assault)

2. aggressive skills learned from others (personally/in media)

3. expected outcome (perceived reward)

4. value alignment (belief that behavior is acceptable)

What % of Canadians meet criteria for antisocial personality disorder?

1% (3% of men, >1% of women)

How much more likely are psychopaths to offend compared to the general population?

5x

What are 4 causes of antisocial personality disorder?

1. Dysfunctional childhood

2. Lack of early attachment

3. Inconsistent discipline

4. Childhood abuse

What Canadian developed the psychopathy checklist? How is it used?

Robert Hare’s checklist is used for research and decision-making in the justice system as it is a strong predictor of violence and recidivism.

How are psychopaths defined?

They are extraverts who do not learn fear responses and don’t learn from negative experiences.

How do definitions of mental illness vary?

Some include only disorders, others include anxiety and depression, others also include substance abuse

What are mentally ill individuals more susceptible to in the justice system?

• Disruptive behavior

• Victimization

• Self-harm

• Suicide

• Institutional maladjustion

What did John Howard and Elizabeth Fry advocate for in the early 1800s?

Reform of prison systems.

What factors are considered when viewing rime through a sociological lens?

The social, economic, and cultural context within which crime occurs — addresses systemic issues, beyond personal choice narratives

How does social disorganization theory explain crime?

It states that crime rates are linked to neighborhood characteristics — lack of services, high unemployment, transience all reduce social control and cause “good” residents to leave

Who developed the concentric zone model? What city was it based on?

Park and Burgess, Chicago

How does the concentric zone model explain crime?

It states that cities have zones, with the nature of the neighborhood (not the individual) being the cause of crime. Crime is maximal in the transitional zone b/w the central business district and the working class neighborhoods.

How does social disorganization theory explain crime-rich neighborhoods?

When informal social controls are reduced (school, church, parents), youth emulate those who have adopted deviant lifestyles for perceived monetary/social gain. The formation of gangs leads to further isolation & deviant behaviour

How did Merton explain crime with strain theory?

Said that the inability to obtain financial success/cultural goals led to various responses, with innovation causing people to seek to obtain these goals by non-socially-approved means (i.e. crime).

Limitations of Merton’s strain theory

Only considered working-class crime, assumes financial success is an intrinsic goal (not manufactured by capitalism), doesn’t consider systemic inequality

Principles of Sutherland’s differential association theory

Criminal behaviour and its skills, motives, rationalizations are learned, chances of crime are increased when these values/desires outweigh traditional ones.

What makes Hirschi’s control theory unique?

It asks why everyone doesn’t commit crime, not why criminals do. It identifies attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief as factors causing people to refrain from crime, suggesting that deviance occurs when they are not present.

How does control theory explain age as a correlate of crime?

Social bonds strengthen with age, consistent with adolescents committing more crime

Limitations of control theory

Doesn’t explain white collar, violent crime — doesn’t consider effects of attachment to negative influences.

How does labelling theory explain crime?

The social reaction of labelling someone as deviant (tagging - Tannenbaum) amplifies the behaviour.

Primary vs. secondary deviance (Lemert)

Primary deviance is something most people engage in, with no special motivation required. Secondary deviance occurs after involvement with the justice system, and is caused by the societal reaction.

Limitations of labelling theory

It doesn’t explain the origins of deviance, doesn’t consider unknown deviance, and can’t explain more serious crime.

What are the principles of critical criminology?

Opposes mainstream criminology/policies and proposes transformative solutions (not making the system more effective)

Quinney’s critical perspective on crime

States that criminology should analyze the context in which laws are made - segments of society have different interests

Critical criminology’s perspective on causes of crime

Inequality and poor living/working conditions drive people to desperation, violence, Crimes of the poor (petty theft, drugs, sex work) are seen as reactions to unjust conditions.

Marx’s Conflict Theory

The elite define what is deviant to protect the interests of the ruling class - acts that threaten the interests of the powerful are punished more severely than acts committed by the powerful

Principles of left realism

Drew on Marx’s ideas, but also considered crime between working class people — argue that the lower class is doubly victimized (by other lower class + upper class)

Improvements suggested by left realism

Decrease relative depravation (housing, wages, transit), improve quality of policing in hot-spot areas, improve social reaction (reduce stigma)

Principles of feminist criminology

Criticizes the male centrism of traditional criminology — focus on exposing systemic issue of violence against women with qualitative research4

3 waves of feminist criminology

1st - mid-late 1800s, 2nd - emergence of feminist criminology, liberal feminist approach 3rd - intersectional feminism, critique of liberal approach

Principles of general crime theory (self-control theory) (Gottfredson & Hirschi)

Impulsiveness is the root of crime - caused by ineffective parenting, develops in childhood and cannot be changed

Policy proposals from self-control theory

Helping parents parent bedder -subsidized daycare, good jobs, parenting courses

Limitations of Self-control/General theory

It is in favour of traditional gender roles in parenting and promotes early ID as the only solution to crime. It also assumes that impulsivity is a lifelong trait and fails to explain white-collar crime and homicides.

Principles of life course criminology

Believes that social context alone determines deviance - various turning points through life events that can cause a person to commit/not commit crime. Focuses on criminal careers that peak in adolescence and decline in adulthood.

Implications of life course criminology

Prisoner re-integration is essential to prevent recidivism - good discharge plan, opportunities for inclusion in society (housing, jobs)

Agnew’s General Strain Theory

Built on Merton’s strain theory by identifying strain as more than financial struggle - any negative social relations will lead to a negative mental state which is conducive to antisocial/illegal activity. The magnitude, unjustness, and decreased social control from strain is what causes crime.

Types of strain in GST

Inability to achieve goals through legal channels, loss of positive stimuli, addition of negative stimuli

How does general strain theory explain gender and crime?

Males are more likely to engage in crime because they experience different types of strain and are conditioned to respond more violently.

How does general strain theory explain adolescent crime?

IT suggests that strain experienced in adolescence has higher perceived impact and injustness, leading to a greater chance of a negative/violent reaction.

Principles of Rational Choice Theory

Built on classical criminology (Beccaria), it suggests that criminals consider personal needs and situational factors, weighing the risks vs the rewards. The emotional state of the perpetrator is also relevant.

According to rational choice theory, what types of crimes are more likely to be rationalized?

Instrumental crimes such as drug dealing & burglary are more likely to be rationalized than expressive crimes (non-premeditated assault). Considerations are needed for the choice of victim, location, and level of risk assumed.

General vs. specific deterrance

General deterrance relies on the certainty and swiftness of punishment, assuming it will deter other potential offenders. Specific deterrance assumes that once an offender has been punished, they won’t reoffend for fear of further punishment.

Little evidence for either

Does evidence suggest imprisonment is an effective strategy to deter crime?

No — long sentences are difficult to justify from a deterrance perspective, imprisonment may increase recidivism (Iabelling, lack of opportunities (strain)), great cost to government (100-200,000 $/y)

How does routine activities theory explain crime?

It assumes that motivation to commit crimes is intrinsic — when a criminal is motivated, has a suitable target, and there is a lack of supervision, a crime will occur.

How does routine activities theory explain crime on a macro- vs micro level\?`

Macro: changes in routine activities of population will affect crime (i.e. technological advancement)

Micro: people more often in “targetable” situations (i.e. homeless) are more likely to be victimized

Policy implications of routine activities theory

Focuses on situational crime prevention - increase required effort and risk, decrease rewards, provocations, and excuses for crime

What is ‘broken windows’/zero tolerance policing?

Argues that the deterioration of the physical environment leads to increased crime rates — police should focus on disorder/small crime to prevent larger crime.

Realistically, led to racial profiling and discrimination

What do judges consider during sentencing?

Judges have discretion — consider mitigating (offender) and aggravating (offence) circumstances which could decrease or increase sentence, respectively

What are the goals of sentencing"?

Utilitarian: deterrance, rehabilitation, incapacitation

Retributive: express societal disapproval, retribution

What are pre-sentence reports?

Reports compiled on offenders post-conviction, pre-sentencing that detail characteristics on the offender for the judge. Produced by probation officers.`

What are Gladue reports? What are their limitations?

Report that directs the judge to consider the unique circumstances of Indigenous people during sentencing

No national standard, not always provided/adhered to, lack of availability in rural/remote areas

What is the role of victims in sentencing?

Limited by criminal code, but they can provide a victim impact statement ((VIS) that must be approved by the judge.