Ochsner Research Methods Columbia

Question, Alternative Hypotheses, Logic and Design, Method, Results, and Inferences.

What does the acronym QuALMRI stand for? Provide the full name for each letter in the framework used to organize scientific thinking.

Diffuse questions are broad, "big-picture" motivations (e.g., "Why are people aggressive?") that cannot be answered by a single study. Specific questions are focused, "bite-sized" pieces (e.g., "Do individual differences in perceiving trivial slights lead to aggression after insult?") that can be tested in an experiment

Explain the difference between Diffuse and Specific questions within the QuALMRI framework, and provide an example of each.

The Logic section serves as a deductive bridge between the hypothesis and the method. It usually follows the format: "If [Hypothesis X] is true, then [manipulating IV 'x' should lead to result 'y' in the DV]".

In QuALMRI, what is the core purpose of the "Logic and Design" section, and what specific sentence structure should it follow to connect theory to observation?

A. Author's Main Hypothesis: A theoretically grounded prediction of the relationship between variables. B. Alternative Hypotheses: Other possible outcomes stemming from the same question (e.g., X decreases Y instead of increasing it). Note: Alternatives should not be entirely new questions

What are the two components required in the Alternative Hypotheses section of a QuALMRI, and what is a common mistake to avoid when generating them?

Independent Variable (IV): The variable the researcher manipulates or pre-selects (e.g., temperature of a coffee cup). Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome variable that is measured (e.g., ratings of personality warmth)

Define Independent Variable (IV) and Dependent Variable (DV). Provide an application example for each based on the Williams & Bargh (2008) study.

Operationalization is the process of translating abstract psychological constructs (like "happiness") into tangible experimental procedures or measures (like "self-reports on a 9-point scale")

What is operationalization, and why is it necessary for both the IV and DV in a research study?

True Experiment: Participants are randomly assigned to manipulated conditions. Quasi-experiment: Participants are pre-selected based on existing discrete groups or continuous variables (e.g., gender, smoking status, or political affiliation)

Contrast a True Experiment with a Quasi-experiment. What is the key difference regarding how participants are placed into groups?

Noise (or nuisance variables) refers to random variability among participants (e.g., caffeine intake, resting heart rate) that adds "static" to the data. Unlike confounds, noise does not systematically vary with the IV but makes it harder to detect an effect

In the context of experimental design, define "noise" and explain how it differs from a systematic confound.

Construct Validity is the degree to which your operationalizations and experiments actually capture the theoretical concepts you intended to study. It is considered the most important type because without it, you aren't studying what you think you are

Which type of validity is considered subordinate to all others and why? Define it in your answer.

Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a measure. Validity refers to the accuracy or "approximate truth" of the measure. A measure can be reliable (giving consistent results) without being valid (measuring the wrong thing)

Distinguish between Reliability and Validity. Is it possible for a study's measure to be reliable but not valid?

IV: Role (Target wearing Manilow T-shirt vs. Observer). DV: Predicted vs. Actual number of observers who noticed the shirt. Result: Targets overestimated how much they were noticed by a 2-to-1 margin

Identify the IV, DV, and the key result of the Gilovich et al. (2000) "Spotlight Effect" experiment involving Barry Manilow T-shirts.

Specific Question: Is the initial categorization and characterization of behavior automatic, followed by a deliberate conscious correction? Method: Participants watched a silent video of an anxious-looking woman with subtitles indicating either anxiety-inducing or relaxing topics. Half were distracted (dual-task, counting numbers)

Describe the Specific Question and Method used in the Gilbert et al. (1988) study on person perception and the automaticity of inferences.

IV: Geographic culture (Northern vs. Southern US). Logic: Southerners are hypothesized to react more aggressively to insults to maintain their "culture of honor." Results: Insulted Southerners gave firmer handshakes and were more domineering in a "chicken" game compared to Northerners

Outline the Logic and Results of the Cohen et al. (1996) "Culture of Honor" experiment. Use specific examples of the dependent measures in your answer.

Hypothesis: A random act of kindness has a greater positive impact when it is poorly understood/uncertain. Operationalized IV: Presence or absence of explanatory questions on a card with a $1 coin attached. Result: Recipients were happier when they were uncertain about why they received the card

In the Wilson et al. (2005) "Pleasures of Uncertainty" study, what was the main hypothesis, how was the IV operationalized, and what did the results show?

Mediation: X leads to Y because it first changes a third variable, M (e.g., Education → Income → Health). Spuriousness: X and Y are correlated only because both are caused by a third variable, Z (e.g., Ice cream sales and drowning are both caused by hot weather)

Using the examples from lecture, explain the difference between Mediation and Spuriousness as they relate to "third variables."

Main Effect: The impact of a single IV on a DV, averaging across other variables. Interaction: Occurs when the effect of one IV on the DV depends on the level of a second IV

Define Main Effect and Interaction in a factorial design. How do you identify an interaction when looking at a line graph?

A. Means, B. Standard Deviations, C. Number of Observations (N). A t-test is an inferential statistic because it allows us to draw conclusions about whether a difference between groups is meaningful/significant

List the three pieces of information needed to conduct a t-test. Is a t-test a descriptive or inferential statistic, and why?

Counterbalancing controls for order effects, fatigue effects, or practice effects that might occur in a within-subjects design where participants receive multiple conditions

What is the purpose of counterbalancing in an experiment, and what specific types of "effects" does it help eliminate?

Spurious. Common third variables like "risk-taking personality" might cause both

A biomedical researcher discovers a high correlation between the number of tattoos a person has and their likelihood of death within 5 years. Based on lecture principles, is this relationship likely Causal, Mediated, or Spurious? Explain.

A bar graph with "Congruent" and "Incongruent" on the X-axis, "Reaction Time (ms)" and "Accuracy" on the Y-axis, and a title like "Effect of Image-Word Congruence on RT"

You are asked to draw a graph for the Affective Priming lab. What should be on the X-axis, the Y-axis, and what is a required element of the visual presentation besides the bars?

A "Within-Subjects" (Repeated Measures) Design. Advantages include acting as one's own control for confounds and requiring fewer participants (N=52 in the lab study)

If every participant in your study completes both the "sad mood" and "happy mood" conditions, what kind of experimental design are you using, and what is one major advantage of this approach?

A good critique avoids generic complaints (like "sample size"). Instead, focus on methodological flaws unique to that study, such as confounds, ambiguous manipulations, or biased sampling that limits specific inferences

According to the QuALMRI handout and TA feedback, what makes a "good critique" of a study's inferences, and what common critique should you generally avoid?

Self-report (e.g., "How much do you use social media?") is a measurement of existing behavior, not a manipulation. To make it experimental, you must randomly assign groups to different levels of exposure (e.g., 10 mins of TikTok vs. 10 mins of sitting quietly)

A student proposes a study asking: "Does frequent exposure to social media increase stress?" The student measures usage via a survey. Explain why this is correlational, not experimental, and how you would fix it.

The Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale addresses the construct validity of relationship closeness. Aron et al. (1992) addressed potential criticisms by asking participants to describe their interpretation of the overlapping circles to ensure it mapped to the intended psychological construct

How did Aron et al. (1992) address potential criticisms regarding what their "overlapping circles" scale was actually measuring?

Face Validity

This subjective criterion asks: does a measure appear to be relevant and accurate at first glance to an observer or expert and appear to capture the intended construct? For example, the BEQ has high [X] because it directly asks if you are an expressive person

Inferences

This final stage involves broadening the "hourglass" to discuss what the data means for the original theory, as well as acknowledging specific flaws or future directions for the work

Operational Definition

This refers to the specific process of translating an abstract psychological construct (like "stress") into a tangible, measurable procedure (like "heart rate in BPM")

Systematic Confound

This occurs when an unintended variable (like the time of day) changes alongside the factor being manipulated, making it impossible to tell what actually caused the results

Within-Subjects Design

In this type of study, every participant is exposed to every level of the manipulated factor, allowing them to act as their own control group

Content Validity

This is achieved when a researcher ensures their measure covers the entire "universe" or all relevant facets of the construct being studied (e.g., measuring all symptoms of depression)

Predictive Validity

This variety of accuracy is demonstrated when a current measurement can successfully forecast a specific outcome that will occur at a later point in time

Discriminant Validity

This variety of accuracy requires that your measure has a weak or zero correlation with metrics that capture theoretically unrelated constructs (e.g., "emotionality" should not relate to "height")

Observed Score = True Score + Error.

Reliability = true score/observed score

Provide the mathematical formula that serves as the theoretical basis for all measurement consistency in psychology, and the subsequent equation for reliability

Internal Consistency

This form of consistency measures how well different items within a single survey "hang together" or yield similar results for the same participant

Test-Retest Reliability

This is established by giving the same person the same assessment at two different points in time and checking for a strong correlation

Cronbach’s Alpha (α)

Provide the specific name for the most common statistical coefficient used to report the average of all possible split-half consistencies (internal consistency) for a measure like a survey or multi-item scale.

Gilbert et al. (1988)

Identify the study that used a "dual-task" or "cognitive load" methodology to prove that while initial characterizations of a person are automatic, correcting those inferences based on situational context requires deliberate effort

Cohen et al. (1996)

Identify the "Culture of Honor" study where participants were bumped and called an "a**hole" in a narrow hallway to measure regional differences in physiological (cortisol/testosterone) and behavioral aggression.

Aron et al. (1992)

Identify the research that developed a series of seven overlapping circles to measure relationship closeness, while testing its accuracy against long-term relationship outcomes

Williams & Bargh (2008)

Identify the study mentioned in lab where the temperature of a held object (hot vs. cold coffee) influenced how participants rated the personality traits of a stranger

Interaction Effect

Crossover Interaction

When looking at a line graph of a study with two factors, what is occurring if the lines for the different levels are not parallel (e.g., they cross or diverge)? ____________

- When looking at a line graph where the lines form an "X" shape, indicating that the independent variable has opposite effects at different levels of a second factor, what is the specific name for this pattern? _____________

Main Effect

This refers to the consistent impact of a single factor on the outcome, calculated by averaging across all other factors in the study

Congruent vs. Incongruent. Reaction Time (ms) and Accuracy

In the Affective Priming lab, list the two levels of the factor manipulated and what specific metric was used as the outcome (Dependent Variable) to measure automatic evaluation?

Social Facilitation / Inhibition. Zajonc (1966, 1969) cockroach study.

What is the technical name for the phenomenon where the presence of others strengthens a subject's "dominant response," leading to either improved or impaired performance depending on task mastery? What study proved this?

Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974)

Identify the study on self-fulfilling prophecies where white interviewers sat further away and ended sessions sooner with Black applicants, leading those applicants to actually perform more poorly. (the behavior of an interviewer (distance, eye contact) caused the applicant to perform poorly)

"Were you obedient to authority?

You accepted the premise as I laid it out...

The observer and the observed are not independent...

The observed may change their behavior because of the observer...

Liars may use countermeasures...

Analogies to real world?"

What was the central "Intro to Research" takeaway from the class exercise where the Professor lied about being related to Moby and Mike Schmidt?

Countermeasures

In the context of the "Two Truths and a Lie" example and deception/lie detection, what term refers to the deliberate tactics a person uses to manipulate their own behavior or physiology because they know they are being studied?

Reactivity

What is the general term for when a human subject changes their natural behavior simply because they are aware that a researcher is watching or measuring them?

a) negative, r = -0.30

Is the specific correlation coefficient found in the peer-institution data showing the relationship between being distracted by others' laptop use and final course grades

a) negative

b) 0

c) positive

2x2 Factorial Design

In the lab scenario involving "Social Environment" (Alone vs. Friends) and "Recipe Availability" (Recipe vs. No Recipe), what is the technical name for this specific experimental structure?

Interaction

If you found that baking with friends only reduced heart rate when a recipe was not available, but had no effect when a recipe was provided, what statistical effect have you identified?

Subject (Participant) Variable

In a design comparing Men and Women on basketball performance after feedback, "Biological Sex" is not a manipulated factor but a [X], because individuals cannot be randomly assigned to it.

Latin Square

Identify the specific type of partial counterbalancing used to ensure that every experimental condition appears in every possible ordinal position (1st, 2nd, 3rd) across participants.

Nuisance Variable (Noise)

In the Affective Priming lab, "Time of Day" or "Caffeine Intake" were considered [X] because they add variability to reaction times but are not the primary focus of the study.

t(df)=value, p=value

Provide the standard APA format required to report the results of a test comparing two means, including the symbol, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level.

Degrees of Freedom (df)

What is the specific name for the value (usually N−1 or N−2) that represents the number of scores in a sample that are free to vary when estimating statistical parameters?

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Conceptually, a t-test is a calculation of the [X], where the difference between group means is divided by the variability (Standard Deviation) within those groups.

Reject the Null Hypothesis

If your calculated p-value is lower than the alpha level of .05, what is the required formal action you must take regarding the statement that "there is no difference between groups"?

Within-Subjects (Repeated-Measures, Dependent/paired samples) t-test

If you are comparing the same group of people's reaction times on "Congruent" trials versus "Incongruent" trials, what specific variety of t-test must you conduct?

Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale

Identify the measure used in the Aron et al. (1992) study that utilizes physical distance/overlap as a proxy for psychological intimacy.

Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire (BEQ)

Identify the scale used in the Gross & John (1995) research to assess the validity and reliability of how people report their own emotional displays.

Concurrent Validity

This is shown when a new measure (eg. "Stress") correlates strongly with an established benchmark measure (eg. "Cortisol levels") that is administered at the exact same time

Discriminant Validity

A measure of "Self-Esteem" shows high [X] if it has a very low correlation with a measure of "Intelligence," proving they are distinct constructs.

Inter-rater Reliability

In the Cohen et al. (1996) study, two different observers coded the "firmness of the handshake." What consistency metric were the researchers trying to establish by having two coders?

1. Variables: IV (Number of markings/ink); DV (Mortality rate).

2. Operationalization: Surveys administered at a sporting event; 5-year follow-up tracking.

3. Alternative Hypotheses: A. Marking causes physiological stress/death. B. A third factor causes both. The design is inadequate for causal claims because it is correlational.

4. Flaw: Spuriousness caused by a third factor (e.g., risk-taking personality).

5. Fix: Statistically control for personality traits or switch to an animal model where ink can be randomly assigned.

A biomedical researcher tracks 10,000 sports fans for five years after surveying them at a stadium. He finds a high correlation between the count of permanent skin markings a person has and their probability of mortality within that timeframe.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A scatterplot showing a positive correlation between the count of markings (X) and mortality probability (Y).

7. Effects: A positive correlation; no interaction as there is only one predictor.

8. Written Description: As the count of markings increases, the probability of mortality also increases.

9. Inferences: We cannot infer the predictor causes the outcome; the relationship is likely an "illusion."

10. Next Steps: Conduct a study measuring intervening mechanisms like adrenaline-seeking behavior.

A biomedical researcher tracks 10,000 sports fans for five years after surveying them at a stadium. He finds a high correlation between the count of permanent skin markings a person has and their probability of mortality within that timeframe.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

1. Variables: IV (Biological Sex); DV (Emotional Responding).

2. Operationalization: Daily logs kept for 30 days; 12 emotion categories rated on scales.

3. Alternative Hypotheses: A. Females respond more intensely. B. Males respond more intensely. C. No difference exists. The design is a quasi-experiment, limiting causal claims.

4. Flaw: Reactivity (subjects change behavior because they are monitoring themselves) or social desirability bias.

5. Fix: Use an experimental theater setup where participants watch film clips (e.g., Gross & John methodology) and code behavior.

A researcher compares how different biological groups respond to life events. He asks college students to keep a log of their feelings every night for a month, using a specific set of 12 rating categories for their most significant daily event.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A bar graph with "Male" and "Female" on the X-axis and "Mean Intensity" on the Y-axis.

7. Effects: A main effect of the pre-selected grouping factor.

8. Written Description: Females reported higher average intensity across the 12 categories compared to males.

9. Inferences: Differences may be due to actual feelings or just differences in how groups report/construe feelings.

10. Next Steps: Measure physiological data (heart rate/cortisol) to see if reporting matches biology.

A researcher compares how different biological groups respond to life events. He asks college students to keep a log of their feelings every night for a month, using a specific set of 12 rating categories for their most significant daily event.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

1. Variables: IV 1 (Rest vs. Video Games); IV 2 (Written Words vs. ASL Signs); DV (Recall Score).

2. Operationalization: 5 hours of slumber vs. active gaming; tests for 50 items of each type.

3. Alternative Hypotheses: A. Rest helps motor memory (signs) more than verbal. B. Rest helps both equally. C. Rest has no effect.

4. Flaw: Systematic confound (the control group is performing a distracting, arousing task—video games—rather than just "not resting").

5. Fix: Change the control to a neutral, low-arousal task (e.g., a boring documentary) and use counterbalancing for the item lists.

Researchers study how a period of rest impacts memory for two different types of information (text vs. manual gestures). Half the subjects rest for 5 hours, while the others play an engaging electronic game. All then perform a recall task.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A line graph with two lines (Words vs. Signs) and two points on the X-axis (Rest vs. Awake).

7. Effects: Potential main effect of rest and an interaction if rest helps one type of memory more than the other.

8. Written Description: Rest significantly improved memory for gestures by 30%, but verbal memory only improved by 5%.

9. Inferences: If the lines are non-parallel, we infer the benefits of rest depend on the material being learned.

10. Next Steps: Test different lengths of rest to find the "minimum dosage" required for memory consolidation.

Researchers study how a period of rest impacts memory for two different types of information (text vs. manual gestures). Half the subjects rest for 5 hours, while the others play an engaging electronic game. All then perform a recall task.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

1. Variables: IV (Positive writing); DV 1 (Physical complaints); DV 2 (Subjective happiness).

2. Operationalization: Writing for 30 mins/day for a week; health checklist and a 9-point happiness scale.

3. Alternative Hypotheses: A. Positive reflection improves health. B. The act of writing anything helps (general expression). C. No change occurs.

4. Flaw: Absence of a control group; results could be due to the placebo effect or demand characteristics (participants guessing the goal).

5. Fix: Add a neutral writing condition (e.g., writing about the layout of their room) and randomly assign participants to groups.

A graduate student tests if reflecting on pleasant life events improves health. Participants write about their best experiences for 30 minutes daily for one week. The student measures physical ailments and happiness levels at the start and finish.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A bar graph comparing the "Life Events" group to a "Neutral" group on happiness ratings.

7. Effects: A main effect comparing the two writing conditions.

8. Written Description: Those who reflected on pleasant events reported 20% fewer headaches than those who wrote about their room.

9. Inferences: If both groups improve, we infer that the specific content (positivity) wasn't the causal force, but writing itself was.

10. Next Steps: Follow up at 3 months to see if the health benefits are enduring or temporary.

A graduate student tests if reflecting on pleasant life events improves health. Participants write about their best experiences for 30 minutes daily for one week. The student measures physical ailments and happiness levels at the start and finish.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

1. Variables: IV (Exposure to screen-based hostility); DV (Aggressive behaviors).

2. Operationalization: Tracking a cohort from age 3 to 18; hours/violence level of TV; teacher/parent reports.

3. Alternative Hypotheses: A. Hostile media causes behavior. B. Naturally aggressive children prefer hostile media (directionality problem). C. Environment (poverty) causes both.

4. Flaw: Correlational/Longitudinal design cannot establish causality or eliminate third variables (Z).

5. Fix: Conduct a lab-based "True Experiment" where children are randomly assigned to watch a brief hostile or neutral clip, then observe play.

Researchers track a group of individuals for 15 years to see if there is a link between screen-based hostility in childhood and behavioral issues in adulthood. They record viewing habits and collect reports from authorities at school.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A scatterplot showing the relationship between hours of exposure (X) and teacher-rated aggression scores (Y).

7. Effects: A positive correlation (r)

8. Written Description: Higher levels of exposure in early childhood were associated with higher aggression scores in late adolescence.

9. Inferences: We can predict behavior, but we cannot explain why the relationship exists.

10. Next Steps: Use a cross-lagged panel design to see which variable (TV or aggression) predicts the other more strongly over time.

Researchers track a group of individuals for 15 years to see if there is a link between screen-based hostility in childhood and behavioral issues in adulthood. They record viewing habits and collect reports from authorities at school.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

Systematic Confound

This occurs when an unintended third variable (e.g., the time of day) changes consistently along with the manipulated factor, making it impossible to determine the true cause of the results.

Gilbert et al. (1988)

Identify the study that used a "cognitive busyness" manipulation (rehearsing digit strings) to prove that while characterizing someone's personality is automatic, correcting for situational factors (like subtitles about humiliating topics) is effortful.

Correspondence Bias

Gilbert's "Cognitive Busyness" study was designed to investigate [X], the psychological tendency to assume that a person's behavior is caused by their stable traits rather than the external environment.

Zajonc (1966, 1969)

Identify the research that utilized an invertebrate model in easy runways versus difficult mazes to demonstrate that the mere presence of others facilitates well-learned responses but inhibits novel ones.

Wilson et al. (2005)

Identify the "Pleasures of Uncertainty" study where students at a library received a gift and reported higher happiness levels when they were provided with vague, rather than specific, information about the source.

Gilovich et al. (2000)

Identify the "Spotlight Effect" study that required participants to wear a socially awkward shirt (featuring a specific 70s pop icon) to show that targets overestimate how much others notice them by a 2-to-1 margin.

Mitchell, Nosek & Banaji (2003)

Identify the study demonstrating that implicit evaluations are malleable by showing that attitudes/evaluations of a Black athlete changed depending on whether participants focused on/categorized the target's race or their occupation.

Contexts determine how we Construe specific Contents

Provide the "Three C's" framework mentioned in lecture to describe how social situations influence the way we interpret the meaning of social cues.

Social → Psychological → Neural

List the three levels of analysis that psychological science aims to connect, moving from the broadest interpersonal behavior down to the physical brain systems.

Predict, Explain, and Change/Control

What are the three primary goals of psychological research?

Emergent Property

In the "Powers of Ten" lecture example, this term refers to a complex phenomenon (like "Architecture") that appears at a higher level of analysis but cannot be fully understood just by looking at the lower-level parts (like "Bricks").

External Validity

This variety assesses the degree to which a study's findings can be generalized to different people, settings, and time periods beyond the original lab environment.

Convergent Validity

This subtype of accuracy is found when your measure correlates strongly with other different metrics that are theoretically supposed to capture the same psychological construct.

1. Variables: IV (Length of wakefulness: 20, 24, 36, 48 hrs); DV (Scores on memory/skill assessments).

2. Operationalization: Random assignment to lab-controlled overnight stays; testing on 50-item word lists.

3. Alt. Hypotheses: A. Performance drops linearly with time. B. Performance only drops after 24 hours. The design is adequate because it is a true experiment.

4. Flaw: Potential nuisance variables such as individual differences in baseline fatigue or caffeine consumption before entering the lab.

5. Fix: Screen for caffeine use and measure baseline "well-rested" performance for each participant 24 hours prior.

A cognitive psychologist tests the impact of time awake on learning. She brings people into a lab overnight where they are randomly assigned to 20, 24, 36, or 48 hours of wakefulness. After this period, they complete several memory assessments.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A line graph with "Hours Awake" on the X-axis and "Test Score" on the Y-axis, showing a negative slope.

7. Effects: A one-way main effect of the manipulated time factor.

8. Written Description: As the number of hours without slumber increased, the accuracy of recall decreased significantly.

9. Inferences: Because participants were randomly assigned, we can infer that the lack of rest directly caused the drop in cognitive functioning.

10. Next Steps: Test whether this outcome persists across different age groups (e.g., teenagers vs. elderly).

A cognitive psychologist tests the impact of time awake on learning. She brings people into a lab overnight where they are randomly assigned to 20, 24, 36, or 48 hours of wakefulness. After this period, they complete several memory assessments.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

1. Variables: IV (Environmental interaction: Park vs. Library); DV (Physiological stress).

2. Operationalization: 15 minutes of play with small animals vs. 15 minutes of quiet reading; heart rate in BPM.

3. Alt. Hypotheses: A. Animal interaction lowers heart rate. B. Being outdoors lowers heart rate (regardless of animals). The design is inadequate for isolating the animal effect.

4. Flaw: Systematic confound; the locations differ in nature/scenery, meaning the environment changes alongside the factor of interest.

5. Fix: Conduct both conditions in the same room, bringing the animals to the participants in a controlled laboratory setting.

A researcher investigates if playing with bunnies lowers tension. One group is taken to a local park to play with rabbits, while the control group stays in the university library to read. Heart rate is measured afterward.

Tasks:

1. List the factors and their types.

2. Describe how the abstract concepts were made tangible.

3. State other possible outcomes and judge if the plan can prove them.

4. Identify the core problem (confounds/logic).

5. Propose a methodological remedy.

6. Graph: A bar graph comparing the "Animal" condition and the "No Animal" condition on mean BPM.

7. Effects: A main effect of the interaction factor.

8. Written Description: Participants in the outdoor animal condition showed significantly lower heart rates than those in the indoor reading condition.

9. Inferences: We cannot conclude the animals caused the relaxation; it may simply be the effect of being in the park.

10. Next Steps: Add a third condition: "Park with no animals" to tease apart the environmental impact.

A researcher investigates if playing with bunnies lowers tension. One group is taken to a local park to play with rabbits, while the control group stays in the university library to read. Heart rate is measured afterward.

Tasks:

6. Describe the visual data representation.

7. Identify the statistical patterns.

8. Write out the findings.

9. Explain what can be concluded about your other outcomes.

10. Propose a future investigation.

Individual vs. Group (Crowds)

According to the Payne et al. (2017) "Bias of Crowds" model, implicit assessments (stereotyping) are unstable at the [X] level but highly stable and predictive at the [Y] level

Low Test-Retest Reliability

While IAT scores show high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), Gawronski et al. (2017) found that they typically show [X] when measured across different time points for the same person

Contextual Chronic Activation

In the assessment of implicit bias (Payne '17), what is the term for the idea that living in certain geographic regions provides daily reminders of inequities that keep specific stereotypes active in the mind?

Malleability

Mitchell et al. (2004) used the IAT to prove that automatic evaluations are not "fixed" but possess [X], meaning they can be changed by shifting the dimension used to construe a target

Small Effect Sizes

When using individual implicit measures to forecast real-world behavior (e.g., healthcare discrepancies), meta-analyses by Maina et al. (2018) typically find [X] despite the results being statistically significant

Mixed Design

Identify the technical name for an experiment (e.g., the biofeedback study) that combines a "between-participants" factor (e.g., type of feedback) with a "within-participants" factor (e.g., time/days)

Order Effects (Generically)

What is the broad term for changes in a subject's performance (including fatigue or practice) that result from the sequence in which they experience different conditions?

Within-Subjects (Repeated Measures)

Identify the design used in the Affective Priming lab where every participant saw both the "Positive-Positive" and "Negative-Positive" pairings

Assumptions

What internal factor shapes the issues researchers select, the questions they ask, and the answers they expect to find?