POLS 112 - Natural Resources and Violent Conflict + Sustainable Development

Challenges of Conflict-Prone Minerals

Why rough diamonds (KP)? Why gold, coltan, tin and tungsten (ICGLR-RCM)?

"Lootability"

Production "supply chains" and trade conduits, from local to global markets

Negative impact on human security (e.g., human rights; environmental security; forced migration - interdependencies)

Transnational Norms and Governance Responses of Conflict-Prone Minerals

Dynamics of African state and non-state actors as norm entrepreneurs and antipreneurs

• KP: Kimberely Process Certification Scheme

• ICGLR: Regional Certification Mechanism

• Several achievements

  • KP: late 1990s = 5-20% to 0.2% in 2024

  • ICGLR: hundreds of RCM certificates issued since 2013

• Various drawbacks

• KP: Zimbabwe and CAR

• ICGLR-RCM: wider participation beyond Rwanda, funding

The Kimberely Process

Launched in May 2000 as a response to several civil conflicts in Africa that were fuelled in part by diamond proceeds in Sierra Leone, Angola, DR Congo, and Liberia

Is a non-binding “international understanding” among members, including diamond industry and civil society

Seeks to impose strict verification and trade controls on diamonds through the collaboration of state and non-state actors through the Kimberely Process Certification Scheme (KPCS) established in 2003 - decisions reached by consensus

84 participants, more than 99% of all diamond-trading and diamond-producing countries

Supported by the UN Security Council, UN General Assembly, G7/G8, WTO

International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR)

Based on a treaty

ICGLR’s RCM

A mineral regulatory scheme for gold, coltan, tin, and tungsten; endorsed by all ICGLR members in December 2010

Includes 12 African member-states; AU, UN, other multilateral organizations, and several external states provide support

Modeled on the KPCS but has a non-rotating Secretariat

Successes and Near Successes of KP Governance

Republic of Congo (Brazzaville) was suspended (2004-2007) or non-compliance with the KPCS based on misuse of KPCs, misrepresentation of diamond exports, and failure to provide adequate details on its diamond mining sites

Côte d'Ivoire suspended from 2003 to 2013, though some leakage of conflict diamonds in mid-2000s (~200,000 carats per annum)

Near Failure of KP Governance

Marange; compromise; GW

Central African Republic (CAR) and Natural Resources/Conflict

Since late-2012, low-intensity civil war, and rebel-led coup of president, widespread HR abuses, Russian influence

Conflict diamonds possibly being mined by former rebels (Seleka) and allied militia groups from Bria, Sam Ouandja, and Bamingui regions

In May 2013, CAR suspended from the Kimberely Process (in 2011, CAR officially exported 323,575 carats worth $61.4 million) = no exports and no KP member imports; after around 5 years, suspension partially lifted allowing exports from certain designated areas

Sustainable Development and Resource Use

Environmental damage and degradation must be kept to a bare minimum

Non-renewable resources to be used sparingly I order to allow time to develop renewable and environmentally sound substitutes

Sustainable Development in the Future

Renewable resources are to be managed in a manner that does not exceed their rates of regeneration, thereby ensuring their use for future generations, both a process and a goal in and of itself

Global Environmental Governance

World Conservation Strategy (1980) and Brundtland Report (1987)

Agenda 21 & “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro (1992)

1972-2009 - five UN-sponsored meetings on the environment

1997-2015 - Kyoto Protocol

2015-present - Paris Climate Agreement

Global Warming - Political Dynamics

A steady, long-term rise in the average world temperature

Caused in large measure by the burning of fossil fuels - also seen with climate change

Release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons) - also seen with climate change

Dilemmas of Climate Change

Justifying short term and predictable costs versus long-term and potentially unpredictable gains

Targeting certain sectors such as oil companies and industrial workers to sacrifice the most in order for society at large to benefit while incurring relatively little in the way of economic hardship

Certain countries would have to agree to suffer the most in terms of lost economic growth so that all states would benefit

The Montréal Protocol

Adopted in 1987 when 22 countries agreed to reduce CFCs by 50% by 1998

In 1990, the Montréal Protocol was expanded in scope and number of signatories - 81 countries agreed to eliminate all CFCs by 2000

Signatories also agreed to establish a fund that would help countries of the Global South pay for alternative refrigeration technologies that did not use CFCs, importance of epistemic communities

Carbon Offsetting

In order to compensate for the emissions caused by transportation or electricity use, a purchase of an emission reduction credit is made from an organization or project that results in less carbon dioxide, or other GHGs in the atmosphere

Examples of Carbon Offsetting

Funding for renewable energy such as wind farms, solar, geothermal, and biomass (tree-planting and ‘green roofing’ are popular, but do not seek to displace the use of fossil fuels)