Psychology Unit 3 AOS 2

A) Learning

B) Conditioning

C) Behaviourist approaches to learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience 

 

Conditioning: process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment and a behavioural response 

• It refers to learning --> so if one has conditioned to do something, it means that they have learnt it 

 

Behaviourist approaches to learning are theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment 

A) Classical conditioning/respondent conditioning

B) Stages involved

C) Classical conditioning is an example of a ____

Classical conditioning/respondent conditioning is a process of learning through the repeated association of two or more stimuli 

 

It involves three stages:  

1. Before conditioning  

2. During conditioning  

3. After conditioning 

 

• It is an example of a behaviourist approach to learning 

A) NS

B) UCS

C) UCR

D) CS

E) CR

Outline the structure of answering classical conditioning Qs, then do one with reference to Ivan Pavlov dog experiment (hint: dog, bell, food, salivation)

A) Operant conditioning/instrumental learning

• It is an example of a _____

B) Phases - discuss them

Operant conditioning/instrumental learning is a type of learning whereby the consequences of a behaviour determine the likelihood that it will reoccur/be performed again in the future 

• It is an example of a behaviourist approach to learning 

 

Operant conditioning has three phases (ABC): 

1. Antecedent  

2. Behaviour 

3. Consequence 

Identify and describe the two types of consequences and their subtypes

The two types are reinforcement and punishment:

Reinforcement refers to a desirable consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring 

 

This can occur in two ways:  

• Positive reinforcement: the addition of a desirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring  

• Negative reinforcement: the removal of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring 

Punishment refers to an undesirable consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring 

 

This can also occur in two ways: 

• Positive punishment/punishment:  the addition of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring 

• Negative punishment/response cost:  the removal of a desirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring 

For these examples, outline the type of consequence they are:

A) Not being allowed to go to a party for bad behaviour at home

B) Studying hard for a test and then receiving a high mark 

C) a person wears sunglasses to avoid the sun's glare

D) A friend criticising you for arriving late to a catch-up

E) Going for a run when you are stressed, which in turn helps to alleviate your feelings of stress

A) Negative punishment/ response cost - The removal of the desirable experience of going to a party acts as negative punishment for the bad behaviour at home. This decreases the likelihood that the behaviour (bad behaviour at home) will reoccur. 

B) Positive reinforcement - the addition of the desirable stimulus of high marks will increase the likelihood of the behaviour (studying hard)

C) Negative reinforcement - This is negative as it involves removing an unpleasant stimulus --> the sun's glare + It is a reinforcement as is desirable 

D) Positive punishment - The addition of your friend’s negative remarks acts as positive punishment for the behaviour of arriving late to a social catch-up, decreasing the likelihood that the behaviour (being late) will reoccur

E) Negative reinforcement - the removal of the undesirable experience of tension and discomfort acts as negative reinforcement for the behaviour of going for a run when you are stressed which increases the likelihood that the behaviour (going for a run) will reoccur

 

What are some factors that affect the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment:

Compare classical and operant conditioning:

Similarities	Differences
Both are behaviourist approaches to learning	Operant conditioning involves learning a voluntary/deliberate/controlled behaviour, whereas classical conditioning involves learning an involuntary/automatic/reflexive behaviour
Both are three-phase processes of learning	Learners are active during operant conditioning, whereas learners are passive (as the behaviour is consciously changed or maintained in response to a consequence) during classical conditioning (as they do not consciously decide to engage in the learned behaviour)
Both require several trials in order for learning to occur    --> During classical conditioning, the neutral and unconditioned stimuli need to be repeatedly paired in order for learning to occur    -->  In operant conditioning, learning is more likely to occur if the consequence occurs several times in response to a behaviour

Social-cognitive approaches to learning

Social-cognitive approaches to learning involve theories that propose learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes 

A) Observational learning/ social-cognitive learning/ social learning/ modelling

B) Who are involved - what are they labelled as?

C) Is the learner active or passive?

D) It’s different stages (hint: acrostic)

Observational learning is a process of learning that involves a person watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequence/s of that behaviour to guide their future actions – described by Albert Bandura 

• In observational learning, there is a learner and a model, which is the individual who is performing the behaviour that the learner observes 

• The learner has an active role in learning as they need to watch and pay attention to the model in order to be able to imitate the behaviour 

It’s different stages include:

• Attention

• Retention

• Reproduction

• Motivation

• Reinforcement

Acrostic: all roads require maintenance regularly

Attention (social-cognitive learning)

 The first stage of observational learning in which individuals actively focus on the model’s behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour 

 

 Bandura proposed that learners are more likely to pay attention to the model when the model is:  

• Perceived positively  

• Liked  

• Of high status (such as a celebrity)  

• Similar to the learner  

• Familiar to the learner  

• Visible and stands out from others  

• Behaving in a way that the learner believes can be imitated 

Retention (social-cognitive learning)

The second stage of observational learning in which the learner creates a mental representation to remember the model’s demonstrated behaviour / mentally stores the behaviour 

Reproduction

The third stage of observational learning in which the learner must carry out/imitate the behaviour --> they must have the physical and mental capabilities to replicate the behaviour 

Motivation + compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivations

The fourth stage of observational learning in which the learner must want/have the desire to reproduce the behaviour 

 

This motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic 

• Intrinsic motivations occur from within the individual, such as the desire to perform well on an exam 

• Extrinsic motivations occur from factors that are external to the individual, such as the desire to receive praise from your teacher for doing well on an exam 

Reinforcement (social-cognitive learning) + give examples of the different types of reinforcement

The fifth stage of observational learning in which the individual receives a positive consequence for the behaviour which makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future 

 

There are many different types of reinforcement such as: 

• Self-reinforcement: the behaviour is reinforced through factors internal to the individual, such as feeling proud of themselves – intrinsic rewards 

• External reinforcement: the behaviour is reinforced by factors external to the individual, such as receiving an award – external rewards 

• Vicarious reinforcement: increases the likelihood of a learner behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is being rewarded 

• Vicarious punishment: decreases the likelihood of a learner behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is being punished 

Using observational learning, explain how Isabel learns to kick a football by observing her friend Tarsh

Memory + its 3 fundamental processes (describe them)

Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information acquired through learning – active processing system 

It contains 3 fundamental processes: 

1. Encoding – process of converting sensory info into a useable firm that can be stored in the brain 

2. Storage – retention of the encoded info over time 

3. Retrieval – process of recovering info from LTM into STM 

The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory + sketch an annotated image of it

The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory is a model of memory which outlines the three separate stores of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term) each of which interact through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval 

(In the diagram, also include an arrow coming out of STM and pointing back to it called rehearsal)

Compare structural features and control processes and talk about what they include:

Structural features are permanent, fixed features of each memory store that do not vary from one person to another 

These include: 

• Function 

• Capacity (amount of info that can be held) 

• Duration (length of time it can hold info) 

 

Control processes are the way individuals select and use info 

These include: 

• Attention – choosing to attend to and select incoming sensory info 

• Rehearsal – consciously manipulating info to keep it in STM 

• Retrieval – recovery of stored info from LTM to conscious awareness 

A) Sensory memory

B) Compare what happens when sensory info is and not attended to

C) Give examples of type of info retained by sensory memory

D) Where is sensory info transmitted to in the brain (where sensory memory is)

E) Sensory memory capacity

F) Duration of sensory memory

All incoming information enters sensory memory; a memory system which temporarily stores raw information detected by the senses

--> If this sensory information is attended to, then it is converted into a useable form and transferred to short-term memory + if sensory info is not attended to then it is lost 

 

Examples of the type of information that can be retained by sensory memory include:  

• The faces of your classmates directly after looking at them  

• The sound of a bird chirping outside just after you hear it  

• The tag of your clothing that you might feel rubbing against your skin 

• The scent of your deodorant when you spray it  

• The taste of your food when you are eating lunch 

 

• It is where incoming sensory info is transmitted to a specific region of the cerebral cortex and stored for a very brief period – the info is in its raw/original sensory form 

• Sensory memory has an unlimited capacity 

• The duration of sensory memory is extremely brief and generally varies between 0.2 to 4 seconds 

Incoming sensory info is assumed to be stored in separate sensory system called sensory registers

A) What is the sensory register for visual info?

• Comment on its capacity

• Comment on its duration

B) What is the sensory register for auditory info?

• Comment on its capacity

• Comment on its duration

A) Iconic memory is the sensory memory register for visual info --> think of it as 'eye'-conic 

• Capacity: potentially unlimited 

• Duration: 0.2 - 0.4 seconds 

--> visual sensations are captured through movements of our eyes --> each movement produces a snapshot of info which sent to the primary visual cortex 

• The duration of the neural activation is very brief providing the illusion of a continuous visual experience rather than a series of static snapshots 

B) Echoic memory is the sensory memory register for auditory info --> think of it as 'echo' 

• Capacity: potentially unlimited 

• Duration: 3 – 4 seconds 

 

--> the relative longer duration of echoic memory is important for understanding speech, so you can still remember the beginning of a word by the time you hear the end of the word, therefore can comprehend what is being said 

A) Short-term memory (STM)/working memory

B) The information in your STM can only come from your sensory memory. T or F?

C) STM capacity

D) Duration

E) Examples of info in STM

2. Short-term memory (STM)/working memory (as info is being actively processed) is a memory system that temporarily stores a limited amount of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated 

 

• False. The information in your STM can come both from your sensory or long-term memory 

• STM has a limited capacity of 7 ± 2 items (or 5 to 9 items) - which is the number of items that can be actively ‘worked on’ at any one time 

• Has limited duration of STM is 18 to 30 seconds for most people (it is believed that information generally begins to fade after approximately 18 to 20 seconds) 

Examples of info in STM 

• Interpretation of emotions/feelings, language-comprehension, daydreaming, problem-solving 

Rehearsal

The controlled process that involves consciously repeating or manipulating information in STM which can increase the likelihood of information being encoded (the process of converting information into a useable form which can be manipulated and stored in the brain) into long-term memory 

A) Displacement

B) Decay

If the information in your short-term memory is not processed and encoded in long-term memory, it can be pushed out by new incoming information (displacement) or fade away on its own after the duration of STM has expired (decay) 

Chunking + does chunking increase the capacity of items in STM

Chunking is the grouping of info into larger bits/units that can be remembered as single units 

• The capacity of STM is still 7, but info to be remembered is now 7 bigger 'bits'/chunks of info 

A) Long-term memory (LTM)

B) What info does it store

C) Is it an active system + is the info in it in conscious awareness

D) LTM capacity

E) LTM duration

Long-term memory (LTM) is a memory store in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time 

• It contains all the information retained from past events, as well as knowledge of facts + Info in LTM is stored semantically (meaningfully) 

• Inactive system + Information stored in LTM is not in conscious awareness – to prevent us from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of info 

• Capacity: unlimited capacity 

• Duration: potentially permanent 

 

Are we always able to retrieve all the info in LTM? What are some reasons for this?

While LTM is considered to have a potentially unlimited amount of information, this does not mean that we have the capacity to retrieve all this information --> sometimes, we are unable to retrieve and access information in LTM as we may be unaware of how to retrieve it or are not prompted by the right retrieval cues 

Retrieval

Information stored in LTM can also be retrieved which is the process of accessing information that has been stored in long-term memory and bringing it into our conscious awareness in short-term memory

Strengths and limitations of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model Of Memory

Identify the different types of LT memories and their subtypes

A) Explicit memory/declarative memory

B) Describe its subtypes + give examples

Explicit memory/declarative memory is a type of long-term memory that can be consciously retrieved and stated 

• These memories can be voluntarily retrieved & be declared or stated to someone else 

• 'Knowing that' 

A) Implicit memory

B) Describe its subtypes + give examples

Implicit memory is a type of long-term memory that does not require conscious retrieval 

• These memories are involuntarily retrieved & are linked to executing/feeling something rather than explaining it 

• 'Knowing how to' 

 

	Definition	Example
Procedural memory	Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory that involves knowing how to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills	Knowing how to:   • tie your shoelaces   • kick a ball   • play the guitar
Classically conditioned memory	Classically conditioned memory is a type of implicit memory that involves an involuntary conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus    Classically conditioned memories may also involve the formation of an involuntary habit, such as biting your nails when you confront a nerve-racking situation or automatically pressing down on the brake when you reach a stop sign	A child was caught in rough surf and repeatedly dumped by waves, creating a frightening experience. Through classical conditioning, they associated the ocean with fear. As a result, seeing the ocean later may automatically trigger a fear response

Hippocampus

• Hippocampus

• Where is it located?

• How is it shaped like

• There is a hippocampus in each hemisphere. T or F

• It’s function

• What happens when it’s damaged

Hippocampus is a brain structure that is primarily involved in encoding explicit memories 

• It is located in the middle of the brain – within the temporal lobe 

• Shaped like a seahorse 

• There is a hippocampus in each hemisphere  

Function 

• Encoding and retrieving explicit memories  

e.g. 

• The hippocampus encodes an explicit memory (e.g. personal experience) while later the hippocampus is involved in retrieving this info into conscious awareness when telling a friend 

 

• It also transfers newly encoded explicit memories to relevant parts of the brain for permanent long-term storage --> however is not a storage system 

 

If the hippocampus is damaged: 

• A person cannot encode new explicit memories in LTM or retrieve old explicit memories from LTM 

 

Amygdala

• Amygdala

• Where is it located

• How is it shaped

• It’s not located in each hemisphere of the brain. T or F?

• It’s function

• What happens when it’s damaged

The amygdala is a brain structure that is primarily involved in encoding the emotional component of memories 

• Located in the middle of the brain where it sits in front of the hippocampus  and is often described as the ‘fear centre’ of the brain 

• Almond-shaped structure + located in each hemisphere of the brain

  

Function 

• Plays a role in encoding and retrieving implicit memories of unconscious emotions 

 

If the amygdala is damaged, a person experiences: 

• An inability to encode strong emotional memories/implicit conditioned responses (e.g. fear) 

• An inability to experience strong emotions associated with episodic memories 

• Neocortex/cerebral cortex/cortex/grey matter

• Function

• Different components/senses that are related to an event are stored in different parts of the brain as an explicit memory. How are these components linked?

• What happens when it’s damaged

The neocortex is a the 2-4mm thick outer covering of the brain that stores explicit memories 

 

Function 

• Where once explicit memories are converted into a usable form in the hippocampus, they are stored within the neocortex to be retrieved for later use (e.g. holidays/concerts attended, psych notes) 

 

—> these components are linked by neural networks to ensure they do not remain separate parts  

 

• The neocortex, particularly the frontal lobe is associated with STM – conscious awareness of info 

 

• The neocortex also stores implicit procedural memories 

 

If the neocortex is damaged, a person: 

• Cannot store explicit memories of events and info they have experienced 

• Experiences problems with their STM 

• May experience difficulties performing implicit procedural memories 

Basal ganglia

• Basal ganglia

• Function

• What happens if its damaged?

The basal ganglia are a group of brain structures  

Function 

• Involved in encoding and storing of implicit procedural memories and assists in the performance of smooth sequences of movements 

• Associated with reinforcement and reward learning 

• Associated with habit formation and learning routine behaviours 

 

e.g. riding a bike, brushing teeth, writing with pen 

 

• The basal ganglia is active when we move a part of our body 

• When feeling accomplishment for trying something new or when action results in positive outcome --> the association between the action and reward is recognised --> the reward indicates to the basal ganglia that the behaviour is useful/worth remembering 

 

If the structure is damaged 

• A person may not be able to perform smooth and fluid voluntary movement, form habits or learn from rewards 

Cerebellum

• Cerebellum

• Function

• What happens if its damaged?

The cerebellum is a brain structure located at the back of the brain alongside the brain stem 

Function 

• Involved in encoding and temporarily storing implicit memories related to precise fine motor movements, balance, posture and coordination 

e.g. kicking a ball, riding a bike 

 

• Also encodes, stores and retrieves implicit memories of classically conditioned simple reflexes 

e.g. eye blink 

 

If the cerebellum is damaged: 

• A person cannot acquire classically conditioning reflex response  

• Also experience difficulties in engaging in fine motor movements, balance and coordination 

How does the hippocampus & amygdala interact

They work together to encode and link emotions to explicit long-term memories  

• The hippocampus encodes the explicit memories – context and details 

• While the amygdala encodes the emotions related to the event +  processes the emotional intensity of an experience  

 

--> the amygdala is activated during retrieval  

--> Sympathetic NS reactions such as heart rate, goose bumps, sweating that have been linked to the memory may also recur 

How does the hippocampus & neocortex interact

They work together to store and retrieve explicit long-term memories 

 

Encoding a memory 

1. The sensory info is processed/attended to in the neocortex (in STM) 

2. The info then travels to the hippocampus where synaptic connections are formed – hippocampus encodes the explicit memory 

3. The hippocampus transfers the memory back to relevant parts of the neocortex for storage 

 

Retrieval of an explicit memory 

1. Info is processed in the neocortex 

2. Info is then sent to hippocampus – which retrieves the 'memory traces'  

3. The retrieved info is then projected back to the neocortex where the event is reconstructed and consciously re-experienced 

 

Each time the hippocampus-neocortex 'feedback loop' is activated, neural pathways for a memory are strengthened --> LTP is taking place 

How does the cerebellum & basal ganglia & motor programming areas of the neocortex interact

They work together to encode, store, and retrieve implicit long-term memories – procedural/motor memories linked with habit formation, fine motor movements and simple reflexes 

1. Neocortex (motor control region) initiates commands to perform a complex sequence of motor movements 

2. The basal ganglia received input from the neocortex to perform a complex sequence of motor movements 

3. The basal ganglia considers the input and refines the message so that movements are performed in a smooth and fluid manner 

4. The basal ganglia sends two simultaneous messages to the neocortex and cerebellum to perform motor movements 

--> release of dopamine from BG stimulates message to facilitate correct, intended smooth movements 

--> release of GABA stimulates message to inhibit/block competing and unwanted movements 

 

• This 'motor loop' is primarily active when a sequence of movement has been well learnt 

• Autobiographical events

• Autobiographical memory (ABM) + what does it consist of (give examples)

Autobiographical events refer to personally lived experiences (e.g. first day of school, memories from family vacation) 

 

Autobiographical memory (ABM) is a memory system that is a combination of episodic memories and semantic memories based on a person's life events – these memories are explicit 

 

ABM consists of: 

• Episodic autobiographical memory (EAM) - Which involve remembering past experiences/events - details involved (thoughts, emotions) 

 

e.g. memory of the holiday at the beach 

• Feeling of sand, wind and sun 

• Feeling relaxes, happy 

• Conversations 

 

• Semantic autobiographical memory (SAM) - associated with knowledge about self, facts 

--> organised in hierarchal structure of broad (e.g. childhood, adulthood), general (birthdays, holidays) and specific (16^th birthday) 

 

e.g. memory of the holiday at the beach 

• Recalling people you were with 

• Time of the year 

• Specific location of holiday 

Autobiographical events involve an overlap of ___ and ___ memory

autobiographical events involve an overlap of episodic and semantic memory

• episodic future thinking or possible imagined futures

• What type of memories are involved

• The brain regions involved in the retrieval of autobiographical memories are different to the regions activated when people construct possible imagined futures. T or F?

• How does damage to the hippocampus affect imagined future scenarios?

• In relation to episodic future thinking, a ____ is believed to be accessed first  

Episodic and semantic memory are also involved in constructing episodic future thinking or possible imagined futures, which refer to hypothetical experiences/situations that an individual has the ability to create and conceptualise in their mind  

• False. The brain regions that are involved in the retrieval of autobiographical memories are also activated when people construct possible imagined futures 

• Studies have found that patients who sustained damage to their hippocampus struggled to imagine future scenarios --> as when individuals attempt to mentally construct a possible imagined future, they draw on elements of past experiences from their semantic and episodic memory 

• In relation to episodic future thinking, a semantic scaffold (SAM) is believed to be accessed first  

e.g. 

• Imagining a job interview, the imagining ourselves in that job interview 

• Neurodegenerative diseases

• Alzheimer’s disease + is it age-related?

• Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease

Neurodegenerative diseases are diseases characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain 

 

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills and personality changes 

• It is age related and common in adults over 65, but not normal part of the ageing process 

• Most common form of dementia 

 

Some symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include:  

• Progressive memory loss 

• A decrease in cognitive functions (e.g. planning, problem-solving) 

• Personality changes  + decline in social skills 

• Changes in mood and emotion 

• Frequently becoming confused, disoriented and impaired attention 

• Difficulty with language and communication 

• Inability to perform familiar tasks 

How can Alzheimer’s disease be diagnosed?

• A proper diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease was initially only be able to be made through a post-mortem examination which is an assessment of a brain/body after death 

• But now advances in new brain imaging techniques have enabled diagnosis in the early stages of the disease while people are still alive 

What are some changes in the brain for someone with Alzheimer’s disease (don’t talk about brain lesions) and how do these changes affect certain abilities (don’t need to talk about all changes for this part of the question)

The brain of someone with Alzheimer's disease has: 

• Severe loss of hippocampal tissue - 

--> this explains their inability to retrieve previously stored explicit memories + inability to form new explicit memories + loss of 'episodic future thinking'

• Brain atrophy (brain shrinkage) - less cortical (cortex) matter 

• Enlarged ventricles (fluid-filled spaces in the brain) 

• Neocortex is damaged – affects their ability to store semantic memories + generating voluntary mental imagery 

• Damage to parietal lobes – linked with problems with spatial memory (e.g. likely to get lost in familiar surroundings) 

• Damage to occipital lobes – difficulty recognising familiar people and objects 

• In later stages, damage to cerebellum – leads to loss of implicit procedural functions 

• Damage to hindbrain (brain stem) affects breathing and heartrate functions 

Brain lesions caused by Alzheimer's disease + sketch them

• Amyloid plaques form outside a neuron and between neurons – where they are fragments of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulate into insoluble plaques that interfere with and inhibit communication between neurons 

--> You can think of it as 'a'myloid plaques – 'a'round neurons 

 

• Neurofibrillary tangles that form inside a neuron (inside cell body) - which are an accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit/reduce the transportation of substances throughout the neuron and eventually kill the neuron  

Alzheimer's disease is characterised by retrograde and anterograde amnesia - explain what these are:

• Anterograde amnesia – inability to form new explicit memories --> which are early signs/at the start 

e.g.  

• Difficulty remembering important upcoming events 

• Forgot where they are 

• Forgot was said in a conversation 

 

• Retrograde amnesia – inability to retrieve previously stored explicit LTM --> as the disease progresses 

 

• For those with Alzheimer's disease, their memories for more recent events are affected more than memories of long ago – so they seem to be living in the past 

• Aphantasia

• Mental imagery

• Sketch a diagram of comparing people with aphantasia with normal people

Aphantasia is a phenomenon in which individuals are unable to voluntarily visualize images in their mind 

• About 2-5% of the population have aphantasia 

• Evidence suggests that the ability to partake in mental imagery might exist on a spectrum – so people visualise things with varying levels of vividness 

 

Mental imagery refers to perceiving an object, event or scene in the absence of external sensory stimuli 

• There are individual differences in the way people experience mental imagery 

People with aphantasia may:  

• Struggle to remember/relive autobiographical memories - as they cannot generate vivid, detailed mental imagery of past autobiographical events from their long-term memory which this makes it difficult for people with aphantasia to construct possible imagined futures 

• Difficulty imagining future/hypothetic events 

• Problems with factual memory 

• Dream less & less vivid dreams 

• Decreased imagery involving other senses such as sound or touch 

• Trouble recognising faces 

• Written traditions

• Mnemonics

• Do mnemonic decrease the amount of info that needs to be stored?

• How can mnemonics fail?

Written traditions are practices in which knowledge, stories, and customs are preserved and shared primarily through writing and reading 

Mnemonics are devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information 

• They do this by organising and linking new information to fit in with existing information in long term memory, improving initial encoding of information 

• They also help to organise different pieces of information, such as unrelated items in a shopping list, into a more meaningful and cohesive whole 

 

• While mnemonics can assist in helping to learn and store information, they do not actually decrease the amount of information that has to be stored --> instead create meaningful links to strengthen the storage of information 

 

• Mnemonics can fail if an individual is unable to retrieve the mnemonic or if they fail to accurately interpret the mnemonic 

A) Acronym

B) Examples

C) Are they the same as abbreviations?

An acronym is a mnemonic device in which the first letters of each word form a pronounceable word to aid memory 

•  The word doesn’t have to be a proper word 

 

Examples: 

• BODMAS 

• ‘FAST’ -->  help remember and detect symptoms of a stroke (Facial drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulties, and Time) 

• ANZAC 

• QANTAS 

• SEA – systematic errors = accuracy 

 

Acronyms aren't the same as abbreviations: 

• Acronyms are pronounceable words while abbreviations are not 

 

 For example, the abbreviation AFL (Australian Football League) is not pronounced as one word but rather as individual letters + VCE 

A) Acrostic

B) Examples

An acrostic is a mnemonic device in which the first letters of each word is used to create a phrase, rhyme, or poem for the info to be recalled 

• Helpful when you have to remember things in a certain order 

• Help link new information to familiar phrases or sentences we already know 

 

Examples: 

• ‘Never Eat Soggy Weet-bix’, which is an acrostic to help remember the compass directions (North, East, South, and West) 

• ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit’, which is an acrostic to help remember the music notes on the line of the treble clef (E, G, B, D, and F) 

A) Method of loci

B) Memory palace

C) Steps involved in method of loci

The method of loci is a mnemonic device that converts information or items into mental images and links them to familiar locations, enabling easier recall by mentally or physically moving through those locations in sequence 

• The method of loci assists in the encoding and storage of memories by visually linking new information to familiar places or routes 

• It's particularly useful in remembering information in a certain order 

 

Memory palace can be rooms of a familiar house, areas of well-known school and even body parts 

• Each room/space provides cues to recall info that has been visualised there 

 

1. Visualise and imagine a familiar route or place (e.g. their house or walk to school) 

2. Select several memorable places (landmarks) on the route or in their chosen place (e.g. their bedroom or a bus stop) 

3. Create visual imagery for each item that needs to be remembered (e.g. a milk carton). Creating bizarre or funny mental imagery can help strengthen the likelihood of the item being remembered  

4. Link each item to one of the identified memorable landmarks 

5. Imagine they are walking through the house or along the familiar route and retrieve each item by observing the items at each landmark 

 

e.g. 

An individual may try to remember ingredients for a cake 

1. An individual may choose to visualise their bedroom 

2. They may then select particular landmarks, such as their bed, desk, or lamp.  

3. Then they need to create visual imagery for each ingredient and link it to the landmarks (e.g. may visualise a bag of flour that has broken and spilt all over the bed or a chocolate bar hidden underneath a pillow.) 

4. When they go to the supermarket to buy the ingredients, they may retrieve their list by mentally walking in their bedroom and retrieving the ingredients by observing them at the different landmarks 

• Oral traditions

• Written cultures

Oral traditions are practices in which knowledge, stories, and customs are preserved and shared through speech and movement (including art, dance, music) and not in a written format 

• Many indigenous cultures are oral cultures 

Written cultures are practices that record and communicate knowledge and information via a written format or typed text-based format 

• Western culture is a written culture 

• Sung narratives

• Songlines + what do they consist of

Sung narratives are stories that share important cultural, ecological, and survival information through the use of singing, music and sometimes dance 

--> think as 'sung' = music/sounds/rhythm and 'narratives' = story telling 

Songlines is a sung narrative about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge and culture that is patterned on country and is shared on location via a physical journey or an imagined pathway 

They are called "songlines" because people sing them while travelling through the landscape, but they are much more than songs. They combine: 

• Songs  

• Stories  

• Dance and performance  

• Movement 

• Paintings/rock art/sculpture 

• Knowledge of the land  

• Physical journeys across Country

Why are songlines important?

Songlines help people: 

• Navigate across Country  

• Find water, food, and shelter  

• Know where sacred places are  

• Learn cultural laws and responsibilities  

• Understand their connection to ancestors and Country  

• Astronomical knowledge (knowledge about stars and the sky)  

• Navigation, ethical and social laws 

• Land management 

• Plants and animals 

• Spiritual knowledge 

They contain practical survival information as well as spiritual and cultural knowledge 

Compare method of loci and songlines

The passage compares Songlines to the method of loci as they can be visualised as a set of locations 

Similarities 

• Both effective mnemonic devices – aiding memory 

• Both rely on location (loci), place and space 

• Both can be navigated either physically or mentally 

 

Differences 

Songlines	Method Of Loci
Used by oral cultures  Song and movements are performed at different locations  Extends over a longer pathway  Includes multi-sensory and multi-modal elements (song, story, dance, art, movement)  More complex  Songlines have beeen maintained & preserved over generations	Used by written cultures  Involves visual imagery if items  Exists over shorter pathways  May involve various sensory systems, but heavily relies on visual imagery  More simple  Info has not been preserved or shared over generations  Generally used by individuals alone

--> as a child is initiated higher in the culture, more detail is added to the knowledge at each location