Rousseau: on Inequality

Rousseau writes, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” Explain this claim with respect to the text we considered. Are there forms of inequality that Rousseau arguably overlooks?

In which text does Rousseau aim to offer an account for the origins of inequality?

"Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality"

What are the two kinds of inequalities that Rousseau distinguishes?

Natural (physical) and Moral (political) inequalities

What does Rousseau mean by natural or physical inequalities?

Innate talents or physical advantages; being stronger, faster or more intellegent that others

What does Rousseau mean by moral or political inequalities

Differences in terms of privileges enjoyed by some: someone being richer, more honoured, more powerful and extracting obedience over others

How does Rousseau distinguish moral evil from natural evil in terms of its causes?

Rousseau believes that moral evil is brought about by the social condition rather than occuring naturally

Rousseau touches on what two main subcategories of moral evil?

social inequality and economic inequality

How does Rousseau’s take on the “state of nature” differ from that of the one proposed by Hobbes?

Rousseau does not think that the state of nature was a “perpetual war”, but rather a state of peace and equality among individuals.

In what way does Rousseau think that the state of nature was relatively plentiful?

Humans were able to provide for their limited needs for their survival without considerable effort

What does Rousseau mean by a lack of socialization in the state of nature?

Rousseau believes that humans were solitary beings who lived independently and did not depend on others for their basic needs and desires, leading to a natural state of peace.

According to Rousseau, when humans came into contact with each other, what happened? Why?

There was no need for contact, and humans’ innate sympathy applied a check on excessive violence

If Rousseau’s state of nature was so great, then why are we not living in it now?

Rousseau theorizes that some natural events (like earthquakes or floods) must have taken place that forced humans to congregate in order to survive

As humans began to join forces, it brought about the ‘first revolution’’; what was this?

The emergence of private property led to social inequalities and the formation of governments to protect such inequalities. Humans began comparing themselves to others in terms of their stability for survival.

During the first revolution, the building of shelters and the establishment of property also gave rise to what?

the formation of family units and the division of labour between the sexes

In the first revolution, humans’ newfound capacity to compare ourselves to others gave rise to what?

The desire for esteem, or the perception of being valued by others. This gave inequality a foothold as a person’s esteem came at the cost of another's.

According to Roussea, after the first revolution, what came next?

the ‘great revolution’

What two main things came with the great revolution?

the invention of metallurgy and agriculture, which are responsible for our decline from this happier state

How is metallurgy responsible for our decline from this happier state?

Metallurgy (the mining and forging of metals) allowed for the creation of tools and weapons, leading to increased competition, conflict, and social stratification.

How is agriculture responsible for our decline from this happier state?

Agriculture drove the division of land and established the notion of property and wealth, resulting in social inequality and dependence on labour.

What does Rousseau mean by “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains”

This phrase suggests that while humans are born with natural rights and freedoms, societal structures and institutions impose restrictions and inequalities that limit their liberty.

What does Rousseau mean by we are servants of one another?

“The esteem I get is dependent on your opinion of me”

What are two types of inequalities that Rousseau overlooks?

Gender inequality and racial inequality

Where does Rousseau briefly mention gender division in his text?

In the first revolution, the formation of gender units in the context of family and social order.

How does Rousseau overlook gender inequality?

He critiques property and class inequality, but he does not apply that same critique to gender hierarchy.

How does Rousseau completely ignore racial inequality?

He presents inequality as arising from property, comparison and social development, but he fails to mention the impacts of race and systemic oppression through things like colonialism.