socy230 exam 1

Middle-range theories

Identifies the conditions that produce specific social behavior

Social identity theory

Argues that while we sometimes act/feel individual, most of our behavior is guided by identification with social structures

Social psychology

The scientific study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

Sociological social psychology

Focus on how social structures, roles, group identity, etc.

Psychological social psychology

Focus on individual mental processes that influence social behavior

Situated identity

An identity that becomes active in a particular social situation

Role taking

The ability to imagine oneself from another person’s perspective

Reflexive self

The ability to reflect on and evaluate oneself

Social exchange perspective

The idea that social behavior is based on maximizing rewards and minimizing costs in interactions

Conditioning

Learning behavior through rewards and punishments

Cognitive structure

An organized system of knowledge that individuals use to interpret the world

Schema

A mental framework used to organize and interpret information

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts people use to make quick judgments or decisions

Methodology

The overall strategy and system of methods used to conduct research

Research process

The sequence of steps used in research including developing a question, forming hypotheses, etc.

Extraneous variable

A variable other than the independent variable that may influence the outcome of a study

Internal validity

The degree to which a study accurately shows that the independent variable caused the dependent variable

External validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to other populations or settings

Qualitative methods

Research methods that collect non-numerical data to understand meanings and experiences

Response rate

The percentage of people selected for a study who actually participate or respond

Reliability

The consistency of a measure or research results over time

Validity

The degree to which a measure accurately represents what it is intended to measure

Simple random sample

A sampling method where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Stratified sample

A sample created by dividing a population into subgroups and randomly selecting participants from each group

Probabilistic sampling

Sampling methods where each member of the population has a known chance of being selected

Convenience sampling

A sampling method where participants are selected because they are easy to access

Theoretical sampling

Selecting participants based on their usefulness for developing or refining a theory

Panel study

A longitudinal study that repeatedly examines the same group of individuals over time

Socialization

The process through which individuals learn the norms and values of a society

Developmental perspective

A view that socialization occurs through stages of growth and development

Interpretive perspective

A perspective that individuals actively interpret and negotiate social rules during socialization

Social structural perspective

A perspective emphasizing how institutions and social structures shape socialization

Cultural routines

Repeated everyday practices that reinforce cultural norms and values

Primary agents of socialization

Individuals or institutions that teach people cultural norms and values

Intrinsic motivation

Behavior driven by internal satisfaction or enjoyment

Extrinsic motivation

Behavior driven by external rewards or punishments

Instrumental or operant conditioning

Learning behavior through rewards and punishments

Primary socialization

Early social learning that occurs mainly through family during childhood

Secondary socialization

Social learning that occurs later through institutions such as schools

Life course

The sequence of stages and experiences individuals go through throughout their lives.

Age effects

Changes that occur because people grow older

Period effects

Influences caused by historical events affecting all age groups at a particular time

Cohort effects

Influences shared by people born during the same time period

Life course careers

Long-term patterns of roles and experiences individuals follow through life

Self-schema

The organized set of beliefs and knowledge individuals have about themselves

Self

A person’s awareness and understanding of who they are

Mead’s I

The spontaneous and creative part of the self that responds to situations

Mead’s Me

The socialized part of the self shaped by society’s expectations

Generalized other

The internalized perspective of society that guides behavior

Looking-glass self (Cooley)

The idea that individuals develop their self-concept based on how they believe others see them

Self-differentiation

The ability to maintain one’s identity while remaining connected to others

Role identities

Identities based on social positions or roles people occupy

Social identities

Identities derived from membership in social groups

Personal identities

Individual traits and characteristics that make someone unique

Identity standards

Internalized expectations about how a person should behave in a particular identity

Reflected appraisals

Perceptions of how others evaluate us

Identity enactment

The process of expressing an identity through behavior

Identity verification

Confirmation that others see us in ways consistent with our identity standards

Consistency motive

The desire for others to see us the way we see ourselves

Enhancement motive

The desire to maintain a positive self-image

Identity salience

The likelihood that a particular identity will be activated in a situation

Identity commitment

The degree of attachment or investment in a particular identity

Subjective importance

Refers to how meaningful the identity feels to a person

Significant others

People whose opinions strongly influence an individual’s self-concept

Individualist cultures

Cultures that emphasize independence and personal achievement

Collectivist cultures

Cultures that emphasize group harmony and interdependence

Situated self

The aspect of the self that becomes active depending on the social context

Identity control theory

People maintain identities by comparing behavior and feedback to internal identity standards

Self-discrepancy

A mismatch between different aspects of the self

Actual self

The person someone believes they currently are

Normative self

The person someone believes they should be based on social expectations

Ideal self

The person someone hopes or wishes to become

Self-awareness

feelingsThe ability to focus attention on oneself and evaluate one’s own thoughts

Self-presentation

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them

Goffman’s dramaturgical approach

A perspective that compares social interaction to a theatrical performance where people act out roles in front of an audience

Front stage

The area of social interaction where individuals perform roles and manage impressions in front of others

Back stage

The area where individuals can relax

Tactical impression management

Conscious efforts to influence how others perceive us in specific situations

Situated identity

The identity that becomes active and is expressed in a specific social situation

Self-disclosure

The act of revealing personal information about oneself to others

Ingratiation

Attempts to make oneself more likable to others in order to gain approval or favor

Supplication

A form of ingratiation in which a person presents themselves as needy or dependent to gain help or sympathy

Opinion conformity

Agreeing with the opinions or attitudes of others to gain approval

Selective self-presentation

Presenting only certain aspects of oneself while hiding others in order to influence impressions

Disclaimer

A statement made before a potentially problematic action to prevent negative judgments

Justification

Explaining behavior after it occurs in order to reduce negative impressions

Embarrassment

A feeling of discomfort or shame that occurs when social expectations are violated

Sources of embarrassment

Situations that threaten an individual’s desired identity or disrupt social interaction

Saving face

Efforts made by individuals or others to restore dignity and repair a damaged social identity

Cooling out

The process of helping someone accept a failure or loss without becoming overly upset or angry

Identity degradation

A process in which a person’s social identity is publicly discredited or reduced

Stigma

A deeply discrediting attribute that causes a person to be socially devalued or excluded

Effects of stigma

Negative social consequences such as discrimination or social rejection